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Bioenergy is considered an important component within the European Union (EU) energy transition to meet mid-century climate targets. Model assessments that have highlighted the role of bioenergy in decarbonising EU energy systems fail to account for the fact that mitigation strategies and bioenergy supply take place within a global decarbonisation effort. Thus, they do not account for inter-regional competition for the resource base that Europe may face. This study shows how bioenergy can contribute to EU climate targets, highlighting its possible role within the energy system and developments required to facilitate its scale-up. We use the global integrated assessment model IMAGE 3.2 to project bioenergy demand, sectoral deployment, feedstock, and inter-regional import for Europe to 2050. Employing a global model allows for projections of EU decarbonisation strategies consistent with global climate targets and captures the effects of biomass production and consumption in other world regions. Bioenergy is projected to account for up to 27% of total primary energy demand, increasing from the current 5EJ to 18EJ/yr. To match this demand, the model projects imports of biomass to increase from 4% of its current supply to 60%. Bioenergy could provide up to 1GtCO2 or 40% of the overall mitigation needed by the EU in 2050. This is based on large-scale use for power production, with the transport, industry and buildings sectors getting smaller shares. By 2050 it is projected that 55% of total EU bioenergy use is coupled with Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS). Bioenergy supply comes primarily for agricultural and forestry residues, as these sources have low upstream greenhouse gas emissions. However, as demand increases, energy crops are increasingly used, especially in the provision of advanced liquid fuels. The results show that one route for achieving an EU energy transition is based on rapid deployment of BECCS and the mobilisation of sustainable impor

It is expected that there will be an increased need for 1-2 million new residential dwellings in the Netherlands in the coming decades. As the Dutch government has set targets to decrease CO2-eq emissions in their climate agreement, increasing the amount of timber used in residential buildings could greatly reduce associated CO2-eq emissions and increase associated carbon storage. However, the Netherlands also faces issues of low wood availability. The aim of this research is to identify strategies that enable high-quality reuse of timber from residential dwellings in the Netherlands by providing an overview of the potential for carbon storage in structural timber until 2050 and 2100, taking into account strategies to maximize the length of use of timber elements. High-quality reuse is defined as reuse in a same or similar function as the first use. To determine the potential for carbon storage, the use of reused timber, and the avoided CO2 emissions, this research uses literature review, expert interviews, data analysis, scenario analysis, and a Material Flow Analysis. By creating scenarios on the number of residential dwellings constructed, the use of timber in dwellings, and the rates of reuse based on identified maximization strategies, ranges are provided for the virgin and reused timber use, associated carbon storage and thus delayed emissions, and the avoided CO2 emissions from incineration. The most important maximization strategies to increase the length of use of timber structural elements until 2050 and 2100 are developing new disassembly techniques for existing dwellings, developing quality standards for (reused) timber elements, improving the infrastructure for reuse of elements and materials, and creating a marketplace with an overview of supply and demand of secondary materials. To increase the length of use of structural timber elements on the longer term, it is also important to take into account design strategies that allow for easy dis- and reasse

It is expected that there will be an increased need for 1-2 million new residential dwellings in the Netherlands in the coming decades. As the Dutch government has set targets to decrease CO2-eq emissions in their climate agreement, increasing the amount of timber used in residential buildings could greatly reduce associated CO2-eq emissions and increase associated carbon storage. However, the Netherlands also faces issues of low wood availability. The aim of this research is to identify strategies that enable high-quality reuse of timber from residential dwellings in the Netherlands by providing an overview of the potential for carbon storage in structural timber until 2050 and 2100, taking into account strategies to maximize the length of use of timber elements. High-quality reuse is defined as reuse in a same or similar function as the first use. To determine the potential for carbon storage, the use of reused timber, and the avoided CO2 emissions, this research uses literature review, expert interviews, data analysis, scenario analysis, and a Material Flow Analysis. By creating scenarios on the number of residential dwellings constructed, the use of timber in dwellings, and the rates of reuse based on identified maximization strategies, ranges are provided for the virgin and reused timber use, associated carbon storage and thus delayed emissions, and the avoided CO2 emissions from incineration. The most important maximization strategies to increase the length of use of timber structural elements until 2050 and 2100 are developing new disassembly techniques for existing dwellings, developing quality standards for (reused) timber elements, improving the infrastructure for reuse of elements and materials, and creating a marketplace with an overview of supply and demand of secondary materials. To increase the length of use of structural timber elements on the longer term, it is also important to take into account design strategies that allow for easy dis- and reasse

Bioenergy is the EU's leading renewable energy source at present. Understanding bioenergy's contribution to the future EU energy mix is strategically relevant for mid to long term climate targets. This review consolidates recent projections of both supply and demand dynamics for EU bioenergy to 2050, drawing from resource-focused, demand-driven and integrated assessment approaches. Projections are synthesised to identify absolute ranges, determine cohesion with policy and draw insights on the implications for the scale of development, trade and energy security. Supply side studies have undergone methodological harmonisation efforts in recent years. Despite this, due to assumptions on key uncertainties such as feedstock yields, technical potential estimates range from 9 to 25 EJyr-1 of EU domestically available biomass for energy in 2050. Demand side projections range between 5 and 19 EJyr-1 by 2050. This range is primarily due to variations in study assumptions on key influential developments such as economic competitivity of bioenergy, EU energy efficiency gains within the power sector, flexibility for meeting mitigation targets and technological portfolios. Upper bound technical supply estimates are able meet future demand wholly from the domestic resource base, holding the potential to reduce total EU primary energy import dependency 22% points from the current EU roadmap trajectory. However, due to part of this domestic resource base being deemed economically inaccessible or of insufficient quality, interregional imports are projected to increase from current 4% to 13–76%. Emergence of non-energy applications are projected to compete for at least 10% of the biomass needed to fulfil bioenergy demand in 2050.

The global shipping industry is responsible for 2-3% of the worlds greenhouse gas emissions. The International Maritime Organization has set a target to reduce shipping emissions by 50% in 2050 compared to 2008 levels. Biofuels have the potential to reduce the emissions of the shipping sector. A potentially affordable and scalable biofuel for the shipping sector is hydroprocessed Fast Pyrolysis Bio-Oil (FPBO), produced from lignocellulosic biomass. To produce transportation fuels from lignocellulosic biomass two processing steps are needed. The first step is fast pyrolysis, which is in the early commercial stage. The second step is hydroprocessing, which is still in the development stage. The Dutch company Biomass Technology Group (BTG) has developed a multi-stage catalytic hydroprocessor to convert FPBO into marine fuel. The aim of this thesis is to assess the techno-economic potential of an FPBO to marine fuel via multi-stage hydroprocessing. Also, a first estimation of the emission factor of the fuel will be made. BTG has provided a design for a demo and commercial plant. This design formed the basis for the development of a chemical process simulation in Aspen Plus. The simulation led to four outcomes: mass balance, energy balance, equipment costs and output product characterisation. These outcomes where combined with the Standardized Cost Estimation of New Technologies methodology, to calculate the production costs of both plants, the average emission factors and test whether the output products characteristics meet the marine fuel requirements. The marine fraction, which is the main output product of the process, complies with the technical requirements of marine fuel. The total lifetime costs of the demo plant are slightly above the 22Me. The MFSP for the commercial plant was 29,50 e/GJ, which is affected most by the PICULA catalyst lifetime and FPBO costs. The average emission factor of the products of the demo and commercial plant is 22,01 kg CO2/GJ and 23

The global shipping industry is responsible for 2-3% of the worlds greenhouse gas emissions. The International Maritime Organization has set a target to reduce shipping emissions by 50% in 2050 compared to 2008 levels. Biofuels have the potential to reduce the emissions of the shipping sector. A potentially affordable and scalable biofuel for the shipping sector is hydroprocessed Fast Pyrolysis Bio-Oil (FPBO), produced from lignocellulosic biomass. To produce transportation fuels from lignocellulosic biomass two processing steps are needed. The first step is fast pyrolysis, which is in the early commercial stage. The second step is hydroprocessing, which is still in the development stage. The Dutch company Biomass Technology Group (BTG) has developed a multi-stage catalytic hydroprocessor to convert FPBO into marine fuel. The aim of this thesis is to assess the techno-economic potential of an FPBO to marine fuel via multi-stage hydroprocessing. Also, a first estimation of the emission factor of the fuel will be made. BTG has provided a design for a demo and commercial plant. This design formed the basis for the development of a chemical process simulation in Aspen Plus. The simulation led to four outcomes: mass balance, energy balance, equipment costs and output product characterisation. These outcomes where combined with the Standardized Cost Estimation of New Technologies methodology, to calculate the production costs of both plants, the average emission factors and test whether the output products characteristics meet the marine fuel requirements. The marine fraction, which is the main output product of the process, complies with the technical requirements of marine fuel. The total lifetime costs of the demo plant are slightly above the 22Me. The MFSP for the commercial plant was 29,50 e/GJ, which is affected most by the PICULA catalyst lifetime and FPBO costs. The average emission factor of the products of the demo and commercial plant is 22,01 kg CO2/GJ and 23

An analysis by Sterman et al (2018 Environ. Res. Lett. 13 015007) suggests that use of wood for bioenergy production results in a worse climate outcome than from using coal. However, many of the assumptions on which their primary wood bioenergy scenario is based are not realistic and therefore are not informative. Assumptions of uncharacteristically long rotations for southern pine plantations, no utilization of wood for longer-duration products, and a single harvest over 100 years understate the carbon performance of current forest management practices. We provide references that support realistic modeling of forest carbon dynamics that are reflective of current practice and therefore more informative.

Management strategies for loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations in the Southeastern USA can be adapted to fulfill both the demand for wood products and for bioenergy. This study quantifies the impact of plantation management choices on the cumulative carbon balance and the net present value of loblolly pine plantations at the stand level, as well as the wood supply cost for bioenergy production for these different management strategies. The strategies assessed (conventional, additional thinning and short rotation) are characterised by planting density, thinning age and rotation period, each with and without collection and utilization of slash residues for bioenergy. The total wood supply costs for bioenergy include the cultivation, harvesting and transport costs for small diameter trees and slash. The results show that the carbon balance after 100 years is 205 (247), 214 (268) and 149 (195) Mg ha−1 for the conventional, additional thinning, and short rotation loblolly pine plantation management strategies (within parentheses: same strategies with slash utilization). The conventional strategy has the lowest wood supply costs for bioenergy, 47 (46) $ Mg−1 pulpwood, followed by the additional thinning strategy, 50 (49) $ Mg−1 pulpwood, and 54 (52) $ Mg−1 pulpwood for the short rotation management strategy. In conclusion, switching from the current conventional strategy without the utilization of slash for bioenergy to an additional thinning strategy with the use of slash increases the overall carbon accumulation by about 31%, at marginally higher wood supply cost. Adapting plantation management strategies can have a positive effect on the economic performance and on the carbon balance of loblolly pine plantations. Integration of wood supply for bioenergy and traditional forestry sectors can lead to co-benefits in terms of cost reduction and carbon accumulation.

The export of wood pellets from the southeastern United States (USA) has grown significantly in recent years, following rising demand from Europe. Increased wood pellet demand could lead to spatially variable changes in timberland management and area in the USA. This study presents an assessment of the impacts of increasing wood pellet demand (an additional 11.6 Mt by 2030) on land-use dynamics, taking into account developments in other wood product markets as well as expected changes in other land uses. An economic model for the forest sector of the southeastern USA (SRTS) was linked to a land-use change model (PLUC) to identify potential locations of land-use change following scenarios of demand for pellets and other wood products. Projections show that in the absence of additional demand for wood pellets, natural timberland area is projected to decline by 450–15 000 km2 by 2030, mainly through urbanization and pine plantation establishment. Under the high wood pellet demand scenario, more (2000–7500 km2) natural timberland area is retained and more (8000–20 000 km2) pine plantation is established. Shifts from natural timberland to pine plantation occur predominantly in the Atlantic coastal region. Future work will assess the impact of projected transitions in natural timberland and pine plantations on biodiversity and carbon storage. This modeling framework can be applied for multiple scenarios and land-use projections to identify locations of timberland area changes for the whole southeastern USA, thereby informing the debate about potential impacts of wood pellet demand on land-use dynamics and environmental services.

Bioenergy is the single largest source of renewable energy in the European Union (EU-28); of this, 14% was produced from agricultural feedstocks in 2012. This chapter provides an overview of the current use (for bioenergy) and future potential of agricultural feedstocks for (amongst others) biorefinery purposes in the European Union. The main application of these feedstocks is currently the production of biofuels for road transport. Biodiesel makes up 80% of the European biofuel production, mainly from rapeseed oil, and the remaining part is bioethanol from wheat and sugar beet. Dedicated woody and grassy crops (mainly miscanthus and switchgrass) are currently only used in very small quantities for heat and electricity generation. There is great potential for primary agricultural residues (mainly straw) but currently only part of this is for heat and electricity generation. Agricultural land currently in use for energy crop cultivation in the EU-28 is 4.4 Mio ha, although the land area technically available in 2030 is estimated to be 16–43 Mio ha, or 15–40% of the current arable land in the EU-28. There is, however, great uncertainty on the location and quality of that land. It is expected that woody and grassy crops together with primary agricultural residues should become more important as agricultural feedstocks.

The expansion of the ethanol industry in Brazil faces two important challenges: to reduce total ethanol production costs and to limit the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission intensity of the ethanol produced. The objective of this study is to economically optimize the scale and location of ethanol production plants given the expected expansion of biomass supply regions. A linear optimization model is utilized to determine the optimal location and scale of sugarcane and eucalyptus industrial processing plants given the projected spatial distribution of the expansion of biomass production in the state of Goiás between 2012 and 2030. Three expansion approaches evaluated the impact on ethanol production costs of expanding an existing industry in one time step (one-step), or multiple time steps (multi-step), or constructing a newly emerging ethanol industry in Goiás (greenfield). In addition, the GHG emission intensity of the optimized ethanol supply chains are calculated. Under the three expansion approaches, the total ethanol production costs of sugarcane ethanol decrease from 894 US$/m3 ethanol in 2015 to 752, 715, and 710 US$/m3 ethanol in 2030 for the multi-step, one step and greenfield expansion respectively. For eucalyptus, ethanol production costs decrease from 635 US$/m3 in 2015 to 560 and 543 US$/m3 in 2030 for the multi-step and one-step approach. A general trend is the use of large scale industrial processing plants, especially towards 2030 due to increased biomass supply. We conclude that a system-wide optimization as a marginal impact on overall production costs. Utilizing all the predefined sugarcane and eucalyptus supply regions up to 2030, the results showed that on average the GHG emission intensity of sugarcane cultivation and processing is -80 kg CO2/m3, while eucalyptus GHG emission intensity is 1290 kg CO2/m3. This is due to the high proportion of forest land that i

This paper aims to provide insights in the cost developments of offshore wind energy in Europe. This is done by analysing 46 operational offshore wind farms commissioned after 2000. An increase of the Capital Expenditures (CAPEX) is found that is linked to the distance to shore and depth of more recent wind farms and commodity prices. Analysis results indicate that these two factors are only responsible for about half of the observed CAPEX increase, suggesting other factors such as turbine market with limited competition also led to an increasing CAPEX. Using CAPEX, Annual Energy Production, Financings costs and Operational Expenditures, the development of average Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCoE) is shown to increase from 120. €/MWh in 2000 towards 190. €/MWh in 2014, which is a direct result of the CAPEX increase. The results indicate very different LCoE values among European countries, from currently about 100 Euro/MWh in Denmark and Sweden to 150-220 Euro/MWh in all other countries investigated suggesting an effect of national policy frameworks on the LCoE of offshore wind energy.

Literature data relevant to the decision to allow a waiver of in vivo bioequivalence (BE) testing for the approval of immediate release (IR) solid oral dosage forms containing pyrazinamide as the only active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) are reviewed. Pyrazinamide is BCS Class III, with linear absorption over a wide dosing range. The risk of bio in equivalence is estimated to be low. Depending on the definition used, pyrazinamide can be classified as a narrow therapeutic index (NTI) drug, which is usually a caveat to biowaiving but may be deemed acceptable if the Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPCs) of the test product stipulates the need for regular monitoring of liver function. It is concluded that a biowaiver can be recommended for IR solid oral dosage only when the test product (a) contains only excipients present in pyrazinamide IR solid oral drug products approved in ICH or associated countries, (b) these excipients are present in amounts normally used in IR solid oral dosage forms, (c) the test product is very rapidly dissolving , (d) the SmPC of the test product indicates the need for monitoring of the patient's liver function. ?? 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc. and the American Pharmacists Association J Pharm Sci 97:3709???3720, 2008

Literature data relevant to the decision to allow a waiver of in vivo bioequivalence (BE) testing for the approval of immediate release (IR) solid oral dosage forms containing ethambutol dihydrochloride as the only active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) are reviewed. Ethambutol dihydrochloride is a Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) Class III drug with permeability properties approaching the border between BCS Class I and III. BE problems of ethambutol formulations containing different excipients and different dosages forms have not been reported and hence the risk of bio in equivalence caused by excipients is low. Ethambutol has a narrow therapeutic index related to ocular toxicity. However, as long as the prescribers' information of the test product stipulates the need for regular monitoring of ocular toxicity, the additional patient risk is deemed acceptable. It is concluded that a biowaiver can be recommended for IR solid oral dosage forms provided that the test product (a) contains only excipients present in ethambutol IR solid oral drug products approved in ICH or associated countries, for instance as presented in this paper, (b) complies with the criteria for ???very rapidly dissolving??? and (c) has a prescribers' information indicating the need for testing the patient's vision prior to initiating ethambutol therapy and regularly during therapy. ?? 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc. and the American Pharmacists Association J Pharm Sci 97:1350???1360, 2008

During the interval 0400-1600 UT on August 31, 1978 strong pc5 activity was observed in the morning and afternoon sector of the magnetosphere. Using data from a world-wide network of ground-magnetometer stations and from the geostationary satellites GEOS 2, GOES 2 and 3 as well as the satellite pair ISEE 1 and 2 a case study was performed with special respect to the question of possible source mechanisms responsible for the observed pulsations. Like earlier workers we came up with the result that the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability at the magnetopause or in the low latitude boundary layer is a likely candidate. In particular we found a change in the azimuthal phase propagation direction from westwards on the morning side and eastward on the afternoon side. Also the sense of polarization and the azimuth of the ground magnetic disturbance in the horizontal plane changed across the meridian of the stagnation point as predicted by a Kelvin-Helmholtz instability source mechanism. A more detailed analysis was carried out for an isolated, large amplitude pc5 event at 1040 UT. At the same time magnetic field observations from the ISEE satellite pair indicate a flux transfer event (FTE) like disturbance at the magnetopause. Also indications of magnetopause boundary oscillations were found, and we feel that this FTE-like event constitutes a possible source for the observed impulsive pc5 event recorded on the ground and on GEOS 2. Furthermore, as the observed pc5 pulsations exhibit a wave-packet structure, we studied whether these wave packets coincided with substorms or substorm intensifications observed simultaneously in the nighttime magnetosphere. However, only a partial one-to-one correlation was found.           ARK: https://n2t.net/ark:/88439/y054611 Permalink: https://geophysicsjournal.com/article/205 &nbsp

During the interval 0400-1600 UT on August 31, 1978 strong pc5 activity was observed in the morning and afternoon sector of the magnetosphere. Using data from a world-wide network of ground-magnetometer stations and from the geostationary satellites GEOS 2, GOES 2 and 3 as well as the satellite pair ISEE 1 and 2 a case study was performed with special respect to the question of possible source mechanisms responsible for the observed pulsations. Like earlier workers we came up with the result that the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability at the magnetopause or in the low latitude boundary layer is a likely candidate. In particular we found a change in the azimuthal phase propagation direction from westwards on the morning side and eastward on the afternoon side. Also the sense of polarization and the azimuth of the ground magnetic disturbance in the horizontal plane changed across the meridian of the stagnation point as predicted by a Kelvin-Helmholtz instability source mechanism. A more detailed analysis was carried out for an isolated, large amplitude pc5 event at 1040 UT. At the same time magnetic field observations from the ISEE satellite pair indicate a flux transfer event (FTE) like disturbance at the magnetopause. Also indications of magnetopause boundary oscillations were found, and we feel that this FTE-like event constitutes a possible source for the observed impulsive pc5 event recorded on the ground and on GEOS 2. Furthermore, as the observed pc5 pulsations exhibit a wave-packet structure, we studied whether these wave packets coincided with substorms or substorm intensifications observed simultaneously in the nighttime magnetosphere. However, only a partial one-to-one correlation was found.           ARK: https://n2t.net/ark:/88439/y054611 Permalink: https://geophysicsjournal.com/article/205 &nbsp