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The article aims to determine internal migrations as a growth factor of the informal economy – case of the city of Juliaca-Peru. The research is a quantitative, non-experimental correlational approach; a multivariate linear model was used to estimate statistical inferences, with a stratified proportional sample of 258 migrants. The empirical findings show that there is a direct and significant relationship between internal migration and the degree of informality, as well as the growth of the informal economy. Consequently, the greater the migratory flow, the greater the growth of informality. These processes bring with them problems and disorder in the city by occupying streets and avenues for the sale of products and services, generating vehicular and pedestrian congestion. In conclusion, the precarious economic and social conditions of migrants have an impact on the high levels of informality and growth of the informal economy., El artículo tiene como objetivo determinar las migraciones internas como factor de crecimiento de la economía informal – caso de la ciudad de Juliaca-Perú. La pesquisa es de enfoque cuantitativo de tipo no experimental correlacional, se utilizó un modelo lineal multivariado para estimar las inferencias estadísticas, con una muestra de tipo estratificado proporcional de 258 migrantes. Los hallazgos empíricos muestran que existe una relación directa y significativa entre la migración interna y el grado de informalidad, así como el crecimiento de la economía informal. En consecuencia, a mayor flujo migratorio mayor crecimiento de la informalidad, dichos procesos traen consigo problemas y desorden en la ciudad al ocupar calles y avenidas para el expendio de los productos y servicios, generando congestionamiento vehicular y peatonal. En conclusión, las condiciones económicas y sociales precarias de las personas migrantes tienen un impacto en los niveles altos de informalidad y crecimiento de la economía informal.

El emprendimiento informal es la forma de emprendimiento más frecuente en países en vías de desarrollo, y absorbe a una gran proporción de las personas empleadas en estos países. Este estudio aborda conceptual y empíricamente este fenómeno como una parte fundamental del empleo informal, utilizando una muestra de 55 países con datos de la Organización Internacional del Trabajo. A partir de un enfoque basado en la calidad de las instituciones, se muestra la influencia que tienen diferentes dimensiones o niveles institucionales en el emprendimiento informal y, por lo tanto, en los niveles de empleo informal. Los resultados indican que, al analizar los países en vías de desarrollo, existe una fuerte relación negativa entre la calidad de la gobernanza y las tasas de emprendimiento informal., Informal entrepreneurship is the most frequent form of entrepreneurship in developing countries and absorbs a large proportion of the people employed in these countries. This study addresses this phenomenon, both conceptually and empirically, as a fundamental part of informal employment, using a sample of 55 countries with data from the International Labour Organization. Using an institutional approach, it shows the influence that different dimensions, or institutional levels, have on informal entrepreneurship and, therefore, on the levels of informal employment. The results indicate that, when analyzing developing countries, there is a strong negative relationship between the quality of governance and the rates of informal entrepreneurship.

The main aim of this paper is to review the vocational integration and the insecurity of female employment in the Tunisian labor market. In the first part, we will be dealing with the evolving status of Tunisian women, including the decline of illiteracy and the improvement of their levels of educational attainment. In the second part, we will be analyzing the characteristics of unemployment and employment depending on several variables. We will have a particular focus on the informal employment and the precarious employment of women., L’objectif principal de cet article est d'étudier l’insertion professionnelle et la précarité d’emploi féminin dans le marché d’emploi tunisien. Dans la première partie, nous aborderons l’évolution du statut des femmes tunisiennes notamment avec la baisse de l’analphabétisme et l’amélioration de leur niveau d’instruction. Dans la deuxième partie, nous allons examiner les caractéristiques du chômage et d’emploi selon plusieurs variables. L'intérêt sera focalisé particulièrement sur l’emploi informel et l’emploi précaire féminin.

This paper explores the relationship between residential confinement to reduce the spread of the COVID-19 virus, seen as a public policy, and how it affects the informal labor sector, as well as the responseof individuals to the pandemic in the states of Mexico. Forming panels for various levels of informality applied to panel vector auto-regressive (PVAR) shows that staying at home as public policy becomes more effective as informality decreases. In addition, the response of individuals to an increase in the spread of the pande-mic depends on the level of informality: for states with lower rates of informality, individuals respond to a higher concentration of residential confinement. But for states with a higher level of informality, the evidence is not significant. The paper considers the role of informality in the development of an effective public policy., Este artículo explora la relación entre el confinamiento residencial para reducir la propagación del virus COVID-19, visto como una política pública, y cómo afecta al sector laboral informal, así como la respuesta de los individuos a la pandemia en los estados de México. La formación de paneles para varios niveles de informalidad aplicada al panel vectorial autorregresivo (PVAR) muestra que la permanenciaen el hogar como política pública es más efectiva a medida que disminuye la informalidad. Además, la respuesta de los individuos a un aumento de la propagación de la pandemia depende del nivel de informalidad: para los estados con menores tasas de informalidad, los individuos responden a una mayor concentración del confinamiento residencial. Pero para los estados con un mayor nivel de informalidad, la evidencia no es significativa. El documento considera el papel de la informalidad en el desarrollo de una política pública eficaz.

Article; Early Access, This paper presents new evidence on the causal link between fertility and female labor supply by focusing on how informal employment interacts with maternal labor supply. We employ an IV strategy based on an unused data source for twin births in Turkey|a large middle-income country with extensive labor informality. We find that, following the first birth, female labor supply declines significantly and mothers who drop out of labor force are mostly the informally employed ones. This is contrary to the perception that informal jobs might be easier to sustain during motherhood as they are more flexible. Following further increases in family size, formally employed mothers start dropping out of labor force and their hours of work also decline. Higher fertility also leads to lower wages and lower job search intensity among mothers. We document substantial differences between maternal versus paternal labor supply in response to changes in family size. Unlike mothers, fathers increase their labor supply, which mostly comes from elevated informal employment|possibly due to a decline in their reservation wages. As a result, wages decline, hours of work increase, and job search activity shifts from formal to informal search methods for fathers. These results suggest that higher fertility might be associated with increased vulnerabilities and high labor income risks in countries with pervasive labor informality. Our estimates are robust to using alternative IV specifications based on gender composition of siblings.

Article; Early Access, This paper presents new evidence on the causal link between fertility and female labor supply by focusing on how informal employment interacts with maternal labor supply. We employ an IV strategy based on an unused data source for twin births in Turkey|a large middle-income country with extensive labor informality. We find that, following the first birth, female labor supply declines significantly and mothers who drop out of labor force are mostly the informally employed ones. This is contrary to the perception that informal jobs might be easier to sustain during motherhood as they are more flexible. Following further increases in family size, formally employed mothers start dropping out of labor force and their hours of work also decline. Higher fertility also leads to lower wages and lower job search intensity among mothers. We document substantial differences between maternal versus paternal labor supply in response to changes in family size. Unlike mothers, fathers increase their labor supply, which mostly comes from elevated informal employment|possibly due to a decline in their reservation wages. As a result, wages decline, hours of work increase, and job search activity shifts from formal to informal search methods for fathers. These results suggest that higher fertility might be associated with increased vulnerabilities and high labor income risks in countries with pervasive labor informality. Our estimates are robust to using alternative IV specifications based on gender composition of siblings.

The significance of employment in alleviating household poverty and enhancing overall well-being is widely acknowledged. In Pakistan, even with the notable growth in agricultural production, the country struggles with significant levels of food insecurity, affecting approximately 20.3 percent of the population, as indicated by a 2019 global report. This research investigates the impact of informal employment on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) and the distribution of resources within households, including categories such as food, non-food items, education, and health. Utilizing data from the Household Integrated Economic Survey (HIES) conducted in 2018-19, fractional response and ordered logit models were employed to analyze the influence of informal employment on resource allocation across various categories and household food insecurity. The findings indicated that households headed by individuals in informal employment typically allocate a more significant portion of their budget to food and health than those in formal employment. Moreover, the impact of informal employment on non-food expenses appears limited, and households with informal workers demonstrate reduced spending on education compared to their formal counterparts. Additionally, the study highlights a higher probability of severe or moderate food insecurity levels in households headed by individuals in informal employment. Comprehending employment and household welfare dynamics necessitates a thorough understanding of intra-household dynamics. This research contributes valuable insights for policymakers, aiding in identifying critical areas for expanding social protection measures for informal workers.

Este artículo explora la relación entre el confinamiento residencial para reducir la propagación del virus COVID-19, visto como una política pública, y cómo afecta al sector laboral informal, así como la respuesta de los individuos a la pandemia en los estados de México. La formación de paneles para varios niveles de informalidad aplicada al panel vectorial autorregresivo (PVAR) muestra que la permanenciaen el hogar como política pública es más efectiva a medida que disminuye la informalidad. Además, la respuesta de los individuos a un aumento de la propagación de la pandemia depende del nivel de informalidad: para los estados con menores tasas de informalidad, los individuos responden a una mayor concentración del confinamiento residencial. Pero para los estados con un mayor nivel de informalidad, la evidencia no es significativa. El documento considera el papel de la informalidad en el desarrollo de una política pública eficaz., This paper explores the relationship between residential confinement to reduce the spread of the COVID-19 virus, seen as a public policy, and how it affects the informal labor sector, as well as the responseof individuals to the pandemic in the states of Mexico. Forming panels for various levels of informality applied to panel vector auto-regressive (PVAR) shows that staying at home as public policy becomes more effective as informality decreases. In addition, the response of individuals to an increase in the spread of the pande-mic depends on the level of informality: for states with lower rates of informality, individuals respond to a higher concentration of residential confinement. But for states with a higher level of informality, the evidence is not significant. The paper considers the role of informality in the development of an effective public policy.

Este artículo explora la relación entre el confinamiento residencial para reducir la propagación del virus COVID-19, visto como una política pública, y cómo afecta al sector laboral informal, así como la respuesta de los individuos a la pandemia en los estados de México. La formación de paneles para varios niveles de informalidad aplicada al panel vectorial autorregresivo (PVAR) muestra que la permanenciaen el hogar como política pública es más efectiva a medida que disminuye la informalidad. Además, la respuesta de los individuos a un aumento de la propagación de la pandemia depende del nivel de informalidad: para los estados con menores tasas de informalidad, los individuos responden a una mayor concentración del confinamiento residencial. Pero para los estados con un mayor nivel de informalidad, la evidencia no es significativa. El documento considera el papel de la informalidad en el desarrollo de una política pública eficaz., This paper explores the relationship between residential confinement to reduce the spread of the COVID-19 virus, seen as a public policy, and how it affects the informal labor sector, as well as the responseof individuals to the pandemic in the states of Mexico. Forming panels for various levels of informality applied to panel vector auto-regressive (PVAR) shows that staying at home as public policy becomes more effective as informality decreases. In addition, the response of individuals to an increase in the spread of the pande-mic depends on the level of informality: for states with lower rates of informality, individuals respond to a higher concentration of residential confinement. But for states with a higher level of informality, the evidence is not significant. The paper considers the role of informality in the development of an effective public policy.

Peru has experienced remarkable improvements in economic growth and poverty reduction during the last years. Informal employment has reduced modestly and still affects to more than 70% of workers. Even when important institutional changes have occurred, such as workers registration simplification and a better enterprises supervision, the formalization process requires productive structure changes and to improve links between economic sectors. Otherwise, economic growth generates unequal labour market outcomes and slows down the formalization process., Perú ha experimentado mejoras notables en crecimiento económico y reducción de la pobreza en los últimos años. El empleo informal se ha reducido moderadamente y aún afecta a más del 70% de trabajadores. Aun cuando han ocurrido cambios institucionales importantes, como la simplificación en el registro de trabajadores y una mejor supervisión a empresas, el proceso de formalización requiere cambios en la estructura productiva y una mejor articulación entre sectores económicos. De otro modo, el crecimiento genera resultados laborales desiguales y reduce la velocidad del proceso de formalización., Dans les dernières années, le Pérou a connu une importante amélioration de la croissance économique et de la réduction de la pauvreté. L’emploi informel s’est réduit mais il atteint encore plus de 70% des travailleurs. Malgré les changements institutionnels importants mis en place, comme la simplification de la registration des travailleurs et l’amélioration de la supervision d’entreprises, le processus de formalisation demandera des changements dans la structure productive et des meilleures liaisons entre les secteurs économiques. Autrement, la croissance économique produit des résultats inégaux dans le marché du travail et ralentit la vitesse du processus de formalisation.

The article aims to determine internal migrations as a growth factor of the informal economy – case of the city of Juliaca-Peru. The research is a quantitative, non-experimental correlational approach; a multivariate linear model was used to estimate statistical inferences, with a stratified proportional sample of 258 migrants. The empirical findings show that there is a direct and significant relationship between internal migration and the degree of informality, as well as the growth of the informal economy. Consequently, the greater the migratory flow, the greater the growth of informality. These processes bring with them problems and disorder in the city by occupying streets and avenues for the sale of products and services, generating vehicular and pedestrian congestion. In conclusion, the precarious economic and social conditions of migrants have an impact on the high levels of informality and growth of the informal economy., El artículo tiene como objetivo determinar las migraciones internas como factor de crecimiento de la economía informal – caso de la ciudad de Juliaca-Perú. La pesquisa es de enfoque cuantitativo de tipo no experimental correlacional, se utilizó un modelo lineal multivariado para estimar las inferencias estadísticas, con una muestra de tipo estratificado proporcional de 258 migrantes. Los hallazgos empíricos muestran que existe una relación directa y significativa entre la migración interna y el grado de informalidad, así como el crecimiento de la economía informal. En consecuencia, a mayor flujo migratorio mayor crecimiento de la informalidad, dichos procesos traen consigo problemas y desorden en la ciudad al ocupar calles y avenidas para el expendio de los productos y servicios, generando congestionamiento vehicular y peatonal. En conclusión, las condiciones económicas y sociales precarias de las personas migrantes tienen un impacto en los niveles altos de informalidad y crecimiento de la economía informal.

The prevalence of precarious employment has increased in recent decades and aspects such as employment insecurity and income inadequacy have intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this systematic review was to identify, appraise, and synthesise existing evidence pertaining to implemented initiatives addressing precarious employment that have evaluated and reported health and well-being outcomes. We used the PRISMA framework to guide this review and identified 11 relevant initiatives through searches in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and three sources of grey literature. We found very few evaluated interventions addressing precarious employment and its impact on the health and well-being of workers globally. Ten out of 11 initiatives were not purposefully designed to address precarious employment in general, nor specific dimensions of it. Seven out of 11 initiatives evaluated outcomes related to the occupational health and safety of precariously employed workers and six out of 11 evaluated worker health and well-being outcomes. Most initiatives showed the potential to improve the health of workers, although the evaluation component was often described with less detail than the initiative itself. Given the heterogeneity of the 11 initiatives regarding study design, sample size, implementation, evaluation, economic and political contexts, and target population, we found insufficient evidence to compare outcomes across types of initiatives, generalize findings, or make specific recommendations for the adoption of initiatives.

This study investigates the effects of the 2000–2012 increase in import competition in the Brazilian economy on the type of manufacturing jobs available to different age groups. These effects are assessed using a multinomial logitmodel and household survey data that cover formal, informal, and self-employed workers. The empirical estimates indicate that an increase in the Chinese or in the rest of the world import penetrations expand self-employment only among young workers. Larger Chinese imports reduce self-employment for middle-aged workers. In contrast, greater imports from elsewhere increase informality across all age groups, though the magnitude is decreasing in age. These estimates are robust to endogeneity concerns through the use of a control function approach.

Drawing upon qualitative data on Albanians residing in Italy and Greece, this article furnishes new insights into the topic of undeclared migrant construction workers’ agency. It analyses different types of undeclared work through Katz’s theoretical framework that suggests a disaggregated conceptualisation of agency. In so doing, it adds to thinking on the factors shaping fluidity between types of agency and challenges dichotomous views on passive or voluntary participation. The article also highlights that mutual interests between workers and employers enable migrant builders to defy and resist state regulations, despite the impacts of undeclared work on workers and the fact that power dynamics are unequal. Thus, the main contribution the article makes is to suggest a more nuanced understanding of labour agency that may go beyond the conflict between employers and workers. Overall, the article highlights the relevance of this study for different economic sectors, geographical areas and migrant groups.

The prevalence of precarious employment has increased in recent decades and aspects such as employment insecurity and income inadequacy have intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this systematic review was to identify, appraise, and synthesise existing evidence pertaining to implemented initiatives addressing precarious employment that have evaluated and reported health and well-being outcomes. We used the PRISMA framework to guide this review and identified 11 relevant initiatives through searches in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and three sources of grey literature. We found very few evaluated interventions addressing precarious employment and its impact on the health and well-being of workers globally. Ten out of 11 initiatives were not purposefully designed to address precarious employment in general, nor specific dimensions of it. Seven out of 11 initiatives evaluated outcomes related to the occupational health and safety of precariously employed workers and six out of 11 evaluated worker health and well-being outcomes. Most initiatives showed the potential to improve the health of workers, although the evaluation component was often described with less detail than the initiative itself. Given the heterogeneity of the 11 initiatives regarding study design, sample size, implementation, evaluation, economic and political contexts, and target population, we found insufficient evidence to compare outcomes across types of initiatives, generalize findings, or make specific recommendations for the adoption of initiatives.

The prevalence of precarious employment has increased in recent decades and aspects such as employment insecurity and income inadequacy have intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this systematic review was to identify, appraise, and synthesise existing evidence pertaining to implemented initiatives addressing precarious employment that have evaluated and reported health and well-being outcomes. We used the PRISMA framework to guide this review and identified 11 relevant initiatives through searches in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and three sources of grey literature. We found very few evaluated interventions addressing precarious employment and its impact on the health and well-being of workers globally. Ten out of 11 initiatives were not purposefully designed to address precarious employment in general, nor specific dimensions of it. Seven out of 11 initiatives evaluated outcomes related to the occupational health and safety of precariously employed workers and six out of 11 evaluated worker health and well-being outcomes. Most initiatives showed the potential to improve the health of workers, although the evaluation component was often described with less detail than the initiative itself. Given the heterogeneity of the 11 initiatives regarding study design, sample size, implementation, evaluation, economic and political contexts, and target population, we found insufficient evidence to compare outcomes across types of initiatives, generalize findings, or make specific recommendations for the adoption of initiatives.

The prevalence of precarious employment has increased in recent decades and aspects such as employment insecurity and income inadequacy have intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this systematic review was to identify, appraise, and synthesise existing evidence pertaining to implemented initiatives addressing precarious employment that have evaluated and reported health and well-being outcomes. We used the PRISMA framework to guide this review and identified 11 relevant initiatives through searches in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and three sources of grey literature. We found very few evaluated interventions addressing precarious employment and its impact on the health and well-being of workers globally. Ten out of 11 initiatives were not purposefully designed to address precarious employment in general, nor specific dimensions of it. Seven out of 11 initiatives evaluated outcomes related to the occupational health and safety of precariously employed workers and six out of 11 evaluated worker health and well-being outcomes. Most initiatives showed the potential to improve the health of workers, although the evaluation component was often described with less detail than the initiative itself. Given the heterogeneity of the 11 initiatives regarding study design, sample size, implementation, evaluation, economic and political contexts, and target population, we found insufficient evidence to compare outcomes across types of initiatives, generalize findings, or make specific recommendations for the adoption of initiatives.

The prevalence of precarious employment has increased in recent decades and aspects such as employment insecurity and income inadequacy have intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this systematic review was to identify, appraise, and synthesise existing evidence pertaining to implemented initiatives addressing precarious employment that have evaluated and reported health and well-being outcomes. We used the PRISMA framework to guide this review and identified 11 relevant initiatives through searches in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and three sources of grey literature. We found very few evaluated interventions addressing precarious employment and its impact on the health and well-being of workers globally. Ten out of 11 initiatives were not purposefully designed to address precarious employment in general, nor specific dimensions of it. Seven out of 11 initiatives evaluated outcomes related to the occupational health and safety of precariously employed workers and six out of 11 evaluated worker health and well-being outcomes. Most initiatives showed the potential to improve the health of workers, although the evaluation component was often described with less detail than the initiative itself. Given the heterogeneity of the 11 initiatives regarding study design, sample size, implementation, evaluation, economic and political contexts, and target population, we found insufficient evidence to compare outcomes across types of initiatives, generalize findings, or make specific recommendations for the adoption of initiatives.

В статье рассматривается проблема отсутствия единого мнения относительно трактовки термина «самозанятые», приводится ряд определений исследуемого понятия, сформулированных различными авторами, производится их анализ. Автором совершается попытка формулировки термина «самозанятые» с учётом социолого-экономического аспекта., The article examines the problem of lack of consensus regarding the interpretation of the term "self-employed", provides a number of definitions of the concept under study, formulated by various authors, and analyzes them. The author attempts to formulate the term "self-employed" taking into account the socio-economic aspect.

The article examines the problem of reducing employment in the informal economy in the context of innovative development.

The article examines the problem of reducing employment in the informal economy in the context of innovative development.

The article examines the problem of reducing employment in the informal economy in the context of innovative development.

The article examines the problem of reducing employment in the informal economy in the context of innovative development.

The article examines the problem of reducing employment in the informal economy in the context of innovative development.

The article examines the problem of reducing employment in the informal economy in the context of innovative development.

The article examines the problem of reducing employment in the informal economy in the context of innovative development.

Regulation efficiency is essential in addressing the growing informal sector in developing countries because informality thrives with an inefficient legal and regulatory framework of an economy. This paper, therefore, seeks to explore the effect of regulations on informal employment across a panel of 36 sub-Saharan Africa from 2005 to 2018. The study includes both the business and labour aspects of regulation to analyse the effect. The fixed effect and GMM method of panel regression analysis was adopted to achieve the objective of the study. The result suggests that an increase in labour regulation efficiency is associated with a reduction in informal employment while there exists no significant relationship between efficient business regulation and informal employment. The study further investigates how the outcomes affect both genders and the output. The study suggests that efficient labour regulation is gender-specific, as the result is only consistent for the male. It is therefore imperative to incorporate more female gender-specific incentives in the social and labour regulations to compensate for the imbalance of social roles of women that may affect their choice to work in the formal or informal sector. &nbsp

The paper presents a demand-led explanation of informal employment. Our proposal suggests that it is premature deindustrialization that developing economies are undergoing the main cause of informal employment. To support our theoretical argument, we present empirical evidence using data of selected economies of Latin America. The results of our panel data estimation indicates that in effect premature deindustrialization explains informal employment. Therefore, to reduce it, a policy focused on reindustrializing the economy must be implemented., Este artículo presenta una explicación desde la demanda del empleo informal. Nuestra propuesta sostiene que es la desindustrialización prematura que aqueja a las economías en desarrollo la causa del empleo informal. Para soportar el argumento teórico, presentamos evidencia empírica usando datos de u grupo de economías de América Latina. Los resultados de nuestra estimación de panel indican que en efecto la desindustrialización prematura incide en el empleo informal. Para reducirlo, por lo tanto, una política enfocada a la re-industrialización debe ser implementada.

The article examines the problem of reducing employment in the informal economy in the context of innovative development.

The paper presents a demand-led explanation of informal employment. Our proposal suggests that it is premature deindustrialization that developing economies are undergoing the main cause of informal employment. To support our theoretical argument, we present empirical evidence using data of selected economies of Latin America. The results of our panel data estimation indicates that in effect premature deindustrialization explains informal employment. Therefore, to reduce it, a policy focused on reindustrializing the economy must be implemented., Este artículo presenta una explicación desde la demanda del empleo informal. Nuestra propuesta sostiene que es la desindustrialización prematura que aqueja a las economías en desarrollo la causa del empleo informal. Para soportar el argumento teórico, presentamos evidencia empírica usando datos de u grupo de economías de América Latina. Los resultados de nuestra estimación de panel indican que en efecto la desindustrialización prematura incide en el empleo informal. Para reducirlo, por lo tanto, una política enfocada a la re-industrialización debe ser implementada.

La OCDE es una organización de cooperación internacional que busca ayudar a los estados a adquirir buenas prácticas para la implementación de políticas económicas y sociales mediante recomendaciones que permitan mejorar la calidad de vida en sus países miembros. En el informe realizado a Colombia en 2019 se hace referencia a la calidad laboral como un factor determinante de la calidad de vida, donde se le recomendó intervenir en el fenómeno de la informalidad laboral. (OCDE, 2019) En este trabajo se buscará analizar cuál es la normatividad colombiana sobre este tema y cuál es el impacto que genera, en términos realistas, las recomendaciones de la OCDE a Colombia en esta materia., “OECD” is an international cooperation organization that pursues the objective - through recommendations - to improve in his states members the obtain of good practices in the implementation of economic and social policies in order to improve the quality of life. Based on the report made in Colombia in 2019 were the OECD conclude that job quality is a determining factor of quality life, regarding to this it recommended to intervene in the phenomenon of labor informality. (OECD, 2019) This paper intent to research and analyze which are the Colombian regulations on this matter and hopefully, we expect to define how realistic are this OECD recommendations and the impact that might generated

A pooled sample of 3,290 Algerian workers from two regional household surveys captures the determinants of access to the formal vs. informal labour market segments. Youth, female gender and low educational attainment drive informal employment. Segmentation does not preclude occupational mobility, rather towards formal segments. Earnings functions on a sub-sample of 1,753 of formal and informal employees highlight an average 25 per cent wage gap, being lower among women, whereas gender pay gap is lower in informal employment. A quantile regression confirms that the distribution of earnings according to informality is somehow gender specific. A decomposition model shows that over two thirds of formal/informal segmentation are explained, whereas unexplained variables account for the highest share of the male/female wage gap.

Regulation efficiency is essential in addressing the growing informal sector in developing countries because informality thrives with an inefficient legal and regulatory framework of an economy. This paper, therefore, seeks to explore the effect of regulations on informal employment across a panel of 36 sub-Saharan Africa from 2005 to 2018. The study includes both the business and labour aspects of regulation to analyse the effect. The fixed effect and GMM method of panel regression analysis was adopted to achieve the objective of the study. The result suggests that an increase in labour regulation efficiency is associated with a reduction in informal employment while there exists no significant relationship between efficient business regulation and informal employment. The study further investigates how the outcomes affect both genders and the output. The study suggests that efficient labour regulation is gender-specific, as the result is only consistent for the male. It is therefore imperative to incorporate more female gender-specific incentives in the social and labour regulations to compensate for the imbalance of social roles of women that may affect their choice to work in the formal or informal sector. &nbsp

It is currently impossible to analyse the socio-economic situation and the budgets of the Russian regions without taking into account the problems of informal employment. There is a wide variety of publications on this topic. However, they do not sufficiently address the regional features and reasons for the behaviour of economic entities, which do not wish to comply with the legalization requirements. We conducted the research based on the neoliberal concept, which considers the informal sector as a consequence of the excessive regulation and state taxation. We hypothesise that the existence of informal employment in the region results in a budget deficit and requires the development of measures promoting the legalization of self-employed income. The study determined the level and causes of the regional informal employment, and assessed its impact on the budget. As a research methodology, we applied empirical methods, statistical, economic and financial analysis. The survey of the population of the Khanty-Mansy Autonomous Okrug — Yugra, established the nature and the main causes of informal employment. Based on the analysis of the regional budget and labour resources, we have examined the impact of informal employment on the budget and determined its cumulative effect. Finally, we have proposed a methodology for assessing how the existing level of self-employment influences the regional budget. This methodology takes into account not only the damage caused to the regional budget revenue due to the lack of tax payments, but also the damage associated with excessive social expenditures on the selfemployed population. The research results can be used for developing the projects aimed at reducing informal employment at all levels of government. © 2020 Institute of Economics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved., Анализ социально-экономического положения регионов России и наполняемость региональных бюджетов на современном этапе невозможны без учета проблем неформальной занятости. Публикации по данной теме многочисленны. Однако в них недостаточно раскрыты региональные особенности и причины поведения хозяйствующего субъекта, который не спешит соблюдать требования легализации. Придерживаясь неолиберальной концепции, в рамках которой неформальный сектор рассматривают как следствие избыточной регламентации и завышенного налогообложения государства, были проведены научные исследования. Гипотеза исследования состоит в том, что наличие в регионе неформальной занятости населения способствует формированию бюджетного дефицита и требует разработки мер в части стимулирования легализации доходов самозанятых. Целью исследования явились определение уровня и причин неформальной занятости в регионе и оценка ее влияния на формирование бюджета. В качестве основных методов исследования выступили эмпирические методы, методы статистического, экономического и финансового анализа. Результаты исследования: проведен опрос населения Ханты-Мансийского автономного округа — Югры, который позволил установить характер и основные причины неформальной занятости, на основе анализа регионального бюджета и трудовых ресурсов установлено влияние неформальной занятости на формирование бюджета и определен совокупный эффект, предложена методика оценки влияния имеющегося уровня самозанятости населения региона на формирование его бюджета, учитывающая не только сумму ущерба, нанесенную доходной части регионального бюджета, в связи с непоступлением налоговых платежей, но и ущерб, связанный с завышенными социальными расходами на самозанятых. Результаты данного исследования могут быть использованы при разработке проектов по снижению неформальной трудовой занятости на всех уровнях государственной власти.

The article discusses how to ensure stable employment in single-industry towns. The Russian labour market has changed significantly due to the transition to a digital society, which transforms both communication technologies and the motivation of labour behaviour. A widespread introduction of non-standard forms of employment has both positive effects and negative risks. To minimize such risks, it is necessary to find mechanisms to increase the economic and social security of standard and non-standard employees. For examining precarious employment, we used studies of foreign and Russian authors, focusing on the characteristics of employment in single-industry towns. Despite the variety of conditions, which are necessary for the socioeconomic development of single-industry towns and forms of employment, we hypothesise that it is possible to develop a unified approach, combining standard and non-standard employment. We demonstrated that the situation, on the labour market in single-industry towns remains tense. In such towns, the number of employed population is decreasing, while their working and employment conditions are getting worse. Thus, we suggest developing the policy of employment management in single-industry towns using a system of measures aimed at forming balanced standard and non-standard employment. At the regional level, the research results can be applied for elaborating proposals for reducing tension in labour markets of single-industry towns. © 2020 Institute of Economics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved., Статья посвящена вопросам обеспечения устойчивой занятости населения моногородов. Переход к цифровому обществу, которое форматируется на стыке изменений в коммуникативных технологиях и мотивации трудового поведения, существенно изменил рынок труда в России. Происходит широкое внедрение нестандартных форм занятости, не только дающее положительные эффекты, но и содержащее негативные риски. Для минимизации этих рисков необходимо найти механизмы повышения экономической и социальной защищенности работников, как в стандартной, так и в нестандартной занятости. В работе использованы зарубежные и российские исследования по проблемам неустойчивой занятости. Предметом данного исследования стали характеристики занятости на рынках труда моногородов. Гипотеза исследования заключается в том, что, несмотря на многообразие условий социально-экономического развития моногородов и видов занятости, возможно выработать единый подход к сочетанию в них устойчивой стандартной и нестандартной занятости. Как показало исследование, ситуация на рынке труда в моногородах остается напряженной. Численность занятых в моногородах снижается, а условия их труда и занятости ухудшаются. Политику управления занятостью в моногородах предлагается разрабатывать с учетом комплекса мер, направленных на развитие сбалансированности стандартных и нестандартных форм занятости. Практические результаты исследования могут быть использованы при разработке предложений органам региональной власти по снижению напряженности на рынках труда в моногородах.

The variations shown by informal employment in the Mexican labor market can be explained considering various social and economic factors. The interest in studying informal employment arises through the observation of its great magnitude as a proportion of the employed population, which is approximately 60% nationally for the period from 2005 to 2014. Because informality It has several characteristics, or in other words, it is heterogeneous, the estimation of the impact of socio-economic factors is made considering its classification in informal type independent employment and dependent type informal employment. In turn, the factors belong to a dualistic or institutionalist theoretical vision. The methodology selected for the estimation is a fixed effects model with panel data that allows us to conclude that the socioeconomic factors with the greatest impact on the levels of informal employment in the Mexican labor market are the education of the population and the sufficiency of the modern sector or formal to capture employment., Las variaciones que muestra el empleo informal en el mercado de trabajo mexicano pueden ser explicadas considerando diversos factores de orden social y económico. El interés por estudiar el empleo informal surge a través de la observación de su gran magnitud como proporción de la población empleada, que es aproximadamente del 60% a nivel nacional para el periodo que abarca del año 2005 al año 2014. Debido a que la informalidad presenta diversas características, o en otras palabras, es heterogénea, la estimación del impacto de los factores socioeconómicos se realiza considerando su clasificación en empleo informal tipo independiente y empleo informal tipo dependiente. A su vez, los factores pertenecen a una visión teórica dualista o institucionalista. La metodología seleccionada para la estimación es un modelo de efectos fijos con datos de panel que permite concluir que los factores socioeconómicos de mayor impacto sobre los niveles de empleo informal en el mercado de trabajo mexicano son la educación de la población y la suficiencia del sector moderno o formal para captar empleo

The variations shown by informal employment in the Mexican labor market can be explained considering various social and economic factors. The interest in studying informal employment arises through the observation of its great magnitude as a proportion of the employed population, which is approximately 60% nationally for the period from 2005 to 2014. Because informality It has several characteristics, or in other words, it is heterogeneous, the estimation of the impact of socio-economic factors is made considering its classification in informal type independent employment and dependent type informal employment. In turn, the factors belong to a dualistic or institutionalist theoretical vision. The methodology selected for the estimation is a fixed effects model with panel data that allows us to conclude that the socioeconomic factors with the greatest impact on the levels of informal employment in the Mexican labor market are the education of the population and the sufficiency of the modern sector or formal to capture employment., Las variaciones que muestra el empleo informal en el mercado de trabajo mexicano pueden ser explicadas considerando diversos factores de orden social y económico. El interés por estudiar el empleo informal surge a través de la observación de su gran magnitud como proporción de la población empleada, que es aproximadamente del 60% a nivel nacional para el periodo que abarca del año 2005 al año 2014. Debido a que la informalidad presenta diversas características, o en otras palabras, es heterogénea, la estimación del impacto de los factores socioeconómicos se realiza considerando su clasificación en empleo informal tipo independiente y empleo informal tipo dependiente. A su vez, los factores pertenecen a una visión teórica dualista o institucionalista. La metodología seleccionada para la estimación es un modelo de efectos fijos con datos de panel que permite concluir que los factores socioeconómicos de mayor impacto sobre los niveles de empleo informal en el mercado de trabajo mexicano son la educación de la población y la suficiencia del sector moderno o formal para captar empleo

The paper tackles the wage differentials issue upon a large sample of employees in eight EU transition countries over 2009-2016 with respect to human capital theory vs. labour market segmentation theory and according to gender. Using several measurement methods, the results display a significant penalty in average real monthly wages for informal employees, which is always higher for females; hence, informal female employees face a double penalty. In regard of individual and job characteristics, earnings functions investigate the wage penalty for informality, which declines respectively to 20 per cent and 12 per cent for males, and 27 per cent and 17 per cent for female employees. Next, fixed effects model demonstrates that wage penalty reaches 23 per cent for females and over 10 per cent for males. Last, according to the decomposition model, explained variables (individual and job characteristics) account for two-thirds of the wage differentials, which prove better explained on the demand side of firms and supports the segmentation theory.

The paper tackles the wage differentials issue upon a large sample of employees in eight EU transition countries over 2009-2016 with respect to human capital theory vs. labour market segmentation theory and according to gender. Using several measurement methods, the results display a significant penalty in average real monthly wages for informal employees, which is always higher for females; hence, informal female employees face a double penalty. In regard of individual and job characteristics, earnings functions investigate the wage penalty for informality, which declines respectively to 20 per cent and 12 per cent for males, and 27 per cent and 17 per cent for female employees. Next, fixed effects model demonstrates that wage penalty reaches 23 per cent for females and over 10 per cent for males. Last, according to the decomposition model, explained variables (individual and job characteristics) account for two-thirds of the wage differentials, which prove better explained on the demand side of firms and supports the segmentation theory.

The strong global health problems derived from the appearance of COVID-19 have led to an economic crisis in Mexico. Which has triggered a temporary closure of the economic activity, causing a decrease in the growth of the economy, resulting in an increase in the levels of unemployment and underemployment in the Mexican labor market. Unlike other crises, the current one has its genesis in a health problem and not in an economic one. Its duration and depth, rather than economic measures, is subject to the duration of the pandemic. The objective of this work is to analyze the situation of the employment and the underemployment in Mexico, in the immediate previous period and during COVID-19. For which a quantitative approach is used along with the deductive, descriptive and graphic method, with the information statistics available. Traditionally, Mexico has seen a significant transfer of workers from the formal to the informal sector, especially in times of economic crisis. Informal employment should decrease under conditions of a booming economy and increase in the face of growth problems. However, in the current situation of confinement and given the reduction in economic activity, people expelled from the formal sector also do not find employment in the informal sector, so the labor market has been negatively impacted in both sectors., Los fuertes problemas sanitarios mundiales derivados de la aparición del COVID-19 han llevado a una crisis económica en México, que ha obligado a cierres temporales de la actividad, lo que ha ocasionado una disminución del crecimiento de la economía, provocando incrementos en los niveles de desempleo y subempleo en el mercado laboral mexicano. A diferencia de otras crisis, la actual tiene su génesis en un problema de salud y no en uno económico. Su duración y profundidad, más que a medidas económicas, se encuentra supeditada a la vigencia de la pandemia. El objetivo del presente trabajo es el de analizar la situación del empleo y subempleo en México, en el periodo inmediato anterior y durante el COVID-19, para lo cual se utiliza un enfoque cuantitativo y el método deductivo, descriptivo y gráfico, con la información estadística disponible. En México tradicionalmente se ha observado una importante transferencia de trabajadores del sector formal al informal, sobre todo en épocas de crisis de la economía. El empleo informal debería disminuir en condiciones de auge de la economía y aumentar ante la existencia de problemas de crecimiento. Sin embargo, en la situación actual de confinamiento y ante la reducción de la actividad económica, las personas expulsadas del sector formal tampoco encuentran empleo en el informal, por lo que el mercado de trabajo ha sido impactado negativamente en ambos sectores.

This paper analyzed the labor participation of recent Venezuelan migrants in Colombia. For this, a mixed methods design was used. First, some characteristics of Venezuelan migrants were compared with natives. Second, five individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with Venezuelans with informal jobs in Bogotá. Venezuelan migrants participated more in the labor force than natives. However, 9 out of 10 Venezuelan workers did not have social security, despite having more education than the natives. It suggests the existence of a segmented labor market with multiple and confluent vulnerabilities. Also, it is observed the importance of migrants’ social networks to obtain a job. Finally, it is proposed to apply public policies that help migrants regularize their documentation and join formal jobs according to their skills., O objetivo deste documento é analisar a participação trabalhista de migrantes venezuelanos que chegaram recentemente à Colômbia. Para esse fim, as características socioeconômicas e trabalhistas foram comparadas entre nativos e migrantes venezuelanos. Os dados são da Pesquisa de Agregados Familiares Grandes - GEIH no primeiro semestre de 2019. Os fatos estilizados mostram que 59,3% dos migrantes venezuelanos estavam trabalhando. No entanto, 9 em cada 10 trabalhadores venezuelanos não tinham segurança social. Especificamente, 92% dos migrantes venezuelanos tinham um emprego informal. Portanto, considera-se relevante aplicar políticas públicas que ajudem os migrantes a se vincularem a empregos formais de acordo com suas habilidades., Este documento analizó la participación laboral de los migrantes venezolanos que llegaron recientemente a Colombia. Para ello, se utilizó un diseño de métodos mixtos. Primero se compararon algunas características de los migrantes venezolanos frente a los nativos. Segundo, se realizaron cinco entrevistas semi-estructuradas individuales a venezolanos con empleos informales en Bogotá. Los migrantes venezolanos participaron laboralmente más que los nativos. Sin embargo, 9 de cada 10 trabajadores venezolanos no tenían seguridad social, a pesar de que tuvieron mayor escolaridad que los nativos. Lo anterior sugiere la existencia de un mercado laboral segmentado con múltiples y confluyentes vulnerabilidades. Asimismo, se observa la relevancia de las redes sociales de los migrantes para obtener un empleo. Finalmente, se propone aplicar políticas públicas que ayuden a los migrantes a regularizar su documentación y vincularse en empleos formales acordes con sus habilidades.

This article studies the probability of being part of informal labor markets after a natural disaster. We consider different concepts of labor market informality and use empirical definitions for employment in the informal sector and informal employment. Since the Ecuadorian earthquake may be considered a natural experiment, we perform a two stage identification strategy using both coarsened exact matching (CEM), and nonlinear difference in differences (DD) using individual panel data. We use a fully exogenous measurement of intensity (Peak Ground Acceleration, PGA), which is continuous, and has not been subject to possible arbitrariness in its definition. We found that the earthquake had a positive effect in the likelihood of being part of informal sector if workers are located in the affected areas; we also identified significant gender differences, since a causal effect for men was found, but not for women. When we use the concept of informality based in jobs (informal employment) instead of companies (informal sector), no robust evidence of a causal effect was found. Our results suggest that the government's reconstruction efforts could had attenuated the effect of the disaster over informality in the most affected zones. © 2019 The Author(s). Regional Science Policy and Practice © 2019 RSAI

This paper investigates the role of consumer credit growth and expansion of consumer financial services on the reduction of informal employment in a developing country. I argue that financial services growth should lead to a decline in the share of informal employment given that consumers whose borrowing constraints are relaxed are more likely to purchase goods with consumer credit and more likely to demand formal contracts. I test this hypothesis by exploiting the regional variation in consumer credit growth in Turkey. In order to address the endogeneity of financial services, I employ minority population loss between 1893 and 1935 in as an instrument. The identification strategy relies on the fact that minorities were main users of financial instruments as they were the trading class in the former Ottoman Empire. The results provide evidence in favor of a positive causal impact of consumer credit growth on formal employment, especially on low-skilled labor.

This article examines the schemes of informal payment of wages by individual employers with the aim to avoid taxation. It will also analyze the causes and consequences of this phenomenon and the effect of the “colour” of income on the well-being of an employee, an employer and the state as a whole. It also discusses legal consequences that employers and employee face when engaging in hidden schemes. The article contains a detailed analysis and proposes measures on how to legalize hidden forms of remuneration and reduce its prevalence.

This article examines the models of informal payment of wages by individual employers with the aim to avoid taxation. It will also analyze the causes and consequences of this phenomenon and the effect of the “colour” of income on the well-being of an employee, an employer and the state as a whole. In addition, the article identifies possible solutions to the problem of hidden wages. It also discusses legal consequences that employers and employee face when engaging in hidden schemes. The article contains a detailed analysis and proposes measures on how to legalize hidden forms of remuneration and reduce its prevalence.

Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug - Yugra (KMAO) is the North's most industrially developed region and the key supplier of the oil and gas resources. Moreover, it is the historical homeland of the small indigenous peoples of the North (SIP). The problem of saving the KMAO's traditional economy is relevant to other North regions, too. The paper analyses the evolutionary changes in the traditional nature management on the developed territories. Additionally, it establishes the methodological tools to substantiate the possibility of the SIP's entrepreneurial activity and its main directions. We hypothesised that the traditional nature management, which determines the necessity of the entrepreneurial activity's development, is volatile. We revealed the reason for the fisheries' low profitability in the traditional economy and proposed the ways of increasing the eficiency of the traditional sector's enterprises. Furthermore, we demonstrated the role of the state and corporate structures in supporting traditional industries and traditional ways of the SIP's living. An analysis of the development of the traditional nature management in the historical perspective has revealed the instability of this kind of activity of indigenous ethnic groups. The instability is caused by several threats of political, socio-economic, environmental, institutional, demographic nature. We demonstrated the specificity of the modern state of traditional nature management in the territories of active industrial and transport development. Traditional nature management involves reindeer herding, hunting, fishing and collecting the wild crop. Furthermore, we considered the forms of organizing the enterprises of traditional nature management. These forms include communities with the stable legal status, non-profit enterprises, limited liability companies, reindeer herding companies, trading posts. We formulated the reasons for the strengthening of the ecological threat, caused by the expansion of the ar, Проанализированы эволюционные изменения в традиционном природопользовании на осваиваемых территориях Севера. Вскрыты причины низкой рентабельности промысловых отраслей традиционного хозяйствования. Обоснованы направления повышения эффективности работы предприятий традиционного сектора. Показана роль государственных и корпоративных структур в поддержке традиционных отраслей и традиционного образа жизни коренного населения. Предложены методический инструментарий обоснования возможности предпринимательской деятельности коренных этносов и его схематичное отображение в виде алгоритма, реализованного для условий заготовки и переработки дикоросов на территории Ханты-Мансийского автономного округа.

This document studies the incidence that Venezuelan immigration has had in recent years with respect to the informality experienced in Colombia for the period 2015-2018. For this, a logistic model determined the degree of probability that a worker in Colombia has been informal. Micro data from the Large Integrated Household Survey (GEIH) of the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) helped in addition to data provided by Migración Colombia, disaggregated by the 23 main cities of the country. The results indicate that the income of Venezuelan immigrants affects informality levels in the country, where the probability that a worker in Colombia is informal increases by 0.49% for every 10,000 immigrants who have entered a certain city., Ce document étudie l'incidence de l'immigration vénézuélienne ces dernières années en ce qui concerne l'informalité vécue en Colombie pour la période 2015-2018. Pour cela, un modèle logistique a déterminé le degré de probabilité qu'un travailleur en Colombie ait été informel. Les microdonnées de la grande enquête intégrée auprès des ménages (GEIH) du Département administratif national des statistiques (DANE) ont aidé en plus des données fournies par Migración Colombie, ventilées par les 23 principales villes du pays. Les résultats indiquent que le revenu des immigrants vénézuéliens affecte les niveaux d'informalité dans le pays, où la probabilité qu'un travailleur en Colombie soit informel augmente de 0,49% pour 10 000 immigrants qui sont entrés dans une certaine ville., Este documento estudia la incidencia que ha tenido la inmigración venezolana en los últimos años con respecto a la informalidad vivida en Colombia para el periodo 2015-2018. Par ello se empleó un modelo logístico para determinar el grado de probabilidad que tiene un trabajador en Colombia de ser informal. Se utilizaron los microdatos de la Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH) del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE), además de datos proporcionados por Migración Colombia, desagregados por las 23 principales ciudades del país. Los resultados indican que el ingreso de inmigrantes venezolanos, afecta los niveles de informalidad en el país, donde la probabilidad que un trabajador en Colombia sea informal aumenta en un 0,49% por cada 10.000 inmigrantes que habían ingresado a una determinada ciudad.

This document studies the incidence that Venezuelan immigration has had in recent years with respect to the informality experienced in Colombia for the period 2015-2018. For this, a logistic model determined the degree of probability that a worker in Colombia has been informal. Micro data from the Large Integrated Household Survey (GEIH) of the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) helped in addition to data provided by Migración Colombia, disaggregated by the 23 main cities of the country. The results indicate that the income of Venezuelan immigrants affects informality levels in the country, where the probability that a worker in Colombia is informal increases by 0.49% for every 10,000 immigrants who have entered a certain city., Ce document étudie l'incidence de l'immigration vénézuélienne ces dernières années en ce qui concerne l'informalité vécue en Colombie pour la période 2015-2018. Pour cela, un modèle logistique a déterminé le degré de probabilité qu'un travailleur en Colombie ait été informel. Les microdonnées de la grande enquête intégrée auprès des ménages (GEIH) du Département administratif national des statistiques (DANE) ont aidé en plus des données fournies par Migración Colombie, ventilées par les 23 principales villes du pays. Les résultats indiquent que le revenu des immigrants vénézuéliens affecte les niveaux d'informalité dans le pays, où la probabilité qu'un travailleur en Colombie soit informel augmente de 0,49% pour 10 000 immigrants qui sont entrés dans une certaine ville., Este documento estudia la incidencia que ha tenido la inmigración venezolana en los últimos años con respecto a la informalidad vivida en Colombia para el periodo 2015-2018. Par ello se empleó un modelo logístico para determinar el grado de probabilidad que tiene un trabajador en Colombia de ser informal. Se utilizaron los microdatos de la Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares (GEIH) del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE), además de datos proporcionados por Migración Colombia, desagregados por las 23 principales ciudades del país. Los resultados indican que el ingreso de inmigrantes venezolanos, afecta los niveles de informalidad en el país, donde la probabilidad que un trabajador en Colombia sea informal aumenta en un 0,49% por cada 10.000 inmigrantes que habían ingresado a una determinada ciudad.

A macrostatistic and panoramic description of the relactions between eight levels of schooling and five key indicators of working conditions of Mexico City’s working force is proposed: none to doctoral schooling as related to economically active participation, employment or unemployment rates, formal or informal occupancy rates, informal working conditions in the formal labor market and income as measured by minimung wages categories. The description is put into context within the principal theoretical approaches that explain the relations between school and work as of different and even antagonic positions. Analyzed data offer sufficient basis to assert that the growth of schooling in Mexico City based in educational policies as far as the 1970s relates in a positive way with the economic values attributed to schooling, but also express values inconsistent and even opposed to the expected results, mainly among people with higher education and the 25-29 age group. Selection and systematic analysis for Mexico city data was performed by Jesús Villarreal, based in the 2018 National Survey of Occupation and Employment, Este artículo propone una descripción macro estadística panorámica de la distribución de la población económicamente activa de la zona metropolitana de la Ciudad de México en cada uno de ocho niveles de escolaridad alcanzada por la población de la ciudad : de ninguna al doctorado y su relación con cinco indicadores estratégicos del trabajo que desempeña: participación en la actividad económica, ocupación o desocupación, formalidad o informalidad, contratación informal en el sector formal y monto de los ingresos en salarios mínimos mensuales. La descripción se enmarca en un análisis que identifica las formas de relación entre la escolaridad y el trabajo aportadas por las principales teorías al respecto. Los resultados ofrecen bases para considerar que el notable incremento de la escolaridad de la PEA de la ciudad se relaciona positivamente con el valor económico atribuido socialmente a los diferentes niveles de escolaridad, pero también expresa valores contrarios a los esperados e inconsistencia en el comportamiento de esos indicadores, en particular entre la población con licenciatura y el grupo de edad de 25 a 29 años. Esas relaciones se argumentan con base en datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Ocupación y Empleo 2018 para la PEA de la Ciudad seleccionadas y sistematizadas por el Lic. Jesús Villarreal.

This paper investigates the role of consumer credit growth and expansion of consumer financial services on the reduction of informal employment in a developing country. I argue that financial services growth should lead to a decline in the share of informal employment given that consumers whose borrowing constraints are relaxed are more likely to purchase goods with consumer credit and more likely to demand formal contracts. I test this hypothesis by exploiting the regional variation in consumer credit growth in Turkey. In order to address the endogeneity of financial services, I employ minority population loss between 1893 and 1935 in as an instrument. The identification strategy relies on the fact that minorities were main users of financial instruments as they were the trading class in the former Ottoman Empire. The results provide evidence in favor of a positive causal impact of consumer credit growth on formal employment, especially on low-skilled labor.