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The terms ‘Nordic countries’ or ‘The Nordics’ include the five countries Denmark, Finland, Island, Norway, and Sweden. This review includes evaluation of the Nordic countries against Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO)/World Health Organizations’ (WHO) guiding principles for healthy, sustainable diets with respect to environmental impact (principles #9 – #13) and sociocultural aspects (principles #14 – #16). A food systems perspective is taken to summarize and discuss the most important challenges and opportunities for achieving sustainable diets. Food system, food security, self-sufficiency, and resilience perspectives are applied. The information can underpin decisions when developing and implementing Food Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDG) in the Nordics. None of the Nordic countries are on track to reach the 2030 UN climate and biodiversity goals. We describe how food production, processing, and consumption contribute to these and other environmental challenges, and what kinds of dietary changes/transitions consistent with these goals are required. A major challenge is the high production and consumption of meat and too low consumption of fish, vegetables, and fruits. Meat production is a major source of emissions and, together with farmed fish, heavily dependent on imported feed ingredients, leaving a large land-use and water footprint in exporting countries while domestic land resources are not used optimally. Dietary patterns have changed drastically over the past 50 years, and in large parts of the population, meat consumption has doubled since the 1970s, rendering historic food culture less useful as a basis for present-day recommendations. The Nordics have Europe’s lowest use of antibiotics in animal and fish production and have made some progress in reducing food waste along the food chain. A major opportunity is better alignment of food consumption and production based on local or regional production potentials, in conjunction with better and

Circular food systems have been proposed as an alternative to the current dominant linear food chain structures. Biomass production for food and energy and nutrient recycling have been defined as the most important elements of circular food systems. Thus far, the potential role of food processing as a large biomass and energy user has gained little attention in studies of the circular bioeconomy. In this study, we explore how compatible bioenergy production is with the energy consumption of regional food processing and how such integrated systems may impact on the economic value created in regional food systems. We applied the nested circularity framework to three contrasting regions to study from an economic perspective the economic value created in primary production, food processing, and bioenergy production. In addition to this, we also calculated the value of external nutrient and energy inputs used in food production. Our results showed how energy production from agricultural biomasses can provide enough energy for food processing on a regional scale, but that this would require integrating food processing with primary production. As a result of this integration, the economic value created in food processing decreased substantially in two of the case study regions, but in contrast, the value increased in the third case study region. We suggest that regionalized food processing is an integral element of circular food systems, as it plays an important role in closing local and regional cycles of nutrients, food, and energy.

Agriculture is expected to feed an increasing global population while at the same time meeting demands for renewable energy and the supply of ecosystem services such as provision of nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration. However, the current structure of the agricultural system works against meeting these expectations. The spatial separation of crop and livestock farms has created negative environmental consequences, and bioenergy production has created a trade-off between food and energy production. In this paper, we explore the opportunities for ecological intensification at a regional scale made possible by combining food and energy production. We built three scenarios representing farming systems including biogas production using grass biomass and manure. These scenarios included the following: (a) The current system with energy production (CSE) from non-edible agricultural biomasses (CSE). (b) Agroecological symbiosis (AES) identical to CSE except with 20% of the arable cropping area converted to clover-grasses for use in biogas production. (c) Agroecological symbiosis with livestock (AES-LST) where the available grass biomass (20% as in the AES) is fed to livestock and manure then used as a feedstock in biogas production. In each scenario, nutrients were circulated back to crops in the form of digestate. The supply of soil functions (primary production for food and energy, provision of nutrient cycling, and climate mitigation) and impacts on water quality through nutrient losses in these three scenarios were then compared to the current system. Integrating biogas production into food production resulted in an increased supply of nutrient recycling, reduced nutrient losses, and increased carbon inputs to the soils indicating enhanced climate mitigation. Food production was either not affected (CSE), increased (AES-LST), or decreased (AES), and biogas was produced in substantial quantities in each scenario. Our study demonstrated potential synergies in integ

Although a circular economy promotes economic and environmental benefits, knowledge gaps remain surrounding the application of these concepts to food systems. A better understanding of the connection between different flows of biomass and energy at different spatial scales is needed to facilitate effective transitions towards circular bioeconomies. This study provides a framework for assessing the circularity of food systems, which we exemplify by identifying key steps towards circularity for three contrasting farming regions in Finland. For each of the regions, we quantified the flows of biomass, nutrients and energy. We found large differences in circularity, depending on the chosen indicator. Most biomass and nutrient flows were related to livestock production, which implies that it plays a key role in circular food systems. Current livestock production was found to be connected to national and global food systems through the international feed trade. This trade generates imbalanced nutrient flows between regions and countries, resulting in excess accumulations of nutrients in regions with net imports. In terms of circularity in energy systems, we found that substantial amounts of energy could be produced from manure and plant-based biomasses without causing food-fuel competition in land use. We also observed that, the inclusion of human excreta would further improve recycling but this was significant only in the region with a high population density. Thus, in his study, we propose a concept of nested circularity in which nutrient, biomass and energy cycles are connected and closed across multiple spatial scales.

Critics of modern food systems argue for the need to shift from a consolidated and concentrated, often monoculture based agro-industrial model toward diversified, post-fossil, and nutrient recycling food systems. The abundance of acute and obvious environmental problems in the agricultural sub-systems of the broader food system(s) have resulted in a focus on technological and natural scientific research into “solving” these point of production problems. Yet, there are many facets of food systems that are vital to sustainability which are not addressed even if the environmental problems were solved. In this article, we argue for agroecological symbiosis (AES) as a generic arrangement for re-configuring the primary production of food in agriculture, the processing of food, and development of a food community to work toward system-level sustainability. The guiding principle of this concept was the desire to base farming and food processing on renewable bioenergy, to close nutrient cycles, to break away from the consolidated food chain, to be more transparent and connected with consumers, and to revitalize the rural spaces where farms generally operate. Through a consistent and robust collaboration and co-creative process with transdisciplinary actors, ranging from food producers, and processers to policy actors, we designed a food system model based on networks of AES (NAES). The NAES would form place-based food networks, replacing the consolidated commodity chains. The NAES supports sustainable interactions from a biophysical and socio-cultural perspective. In this paper, we explain the AES concept, give an overview of the process of co-creating the pilot AES, and a proposal for the extension of the AES, as NAES, to create sustainable food systems. Overall, we conclude that the AES model holds potential for creating place-based food systems that further the sustainability agenda.

There is growing demand to produce both food and renewable energy in a sustainable manner, while avoiding competition between food and energy production. In our study, we investigated the potential of harnessing biogas production into nutrient recycling in an integrated system of organic food production and food processing. We used the case of Agroecological Symbiosis (AES) at Palopuro, which is a combination of three farms, a biogas plant, and a bakery, as a case to explore how biogas production using feedstocks from the farms can be used to improve nutrient cycling, and to calculate how much energy could be produced from the within-system feedstocks. The current system (CS) used in organic farms, and the integrated farm and food processing AES system, were analyzed using Substance Flow analysis. In the AES, annual nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) surpluses were projected to be reduced from 95 kg ha−1 to 36 kg ha−1 and from 3.4 kg ha−1 to −0.5 kg ha−1 respectively, compared to the CS. Biogas produced from green manure leys as the major feedstock, produced 2809 MWh a−1. This was 70% more than the energy consumed (1650 MWh a−1) in the systemand thus the AES system turned out to be a net energy producer. Results demonstrated the potential of biogas production to enhance the transition to bioenergy, nutrient recycling, and crop productivity in renewable localized farming and food systems.

Traction sheave elevators tend to have uneven rope tensions. In an optimum situation, the rope tensions in all the ropes would be equal, but in real-life situations that is not the case. These variations cause ropes and traction sheaves to wear unevenly. This causes monetary and reliability issues to elevator companies. The phenomenon is caused by several reasons, such as: different initial rope lengths, misalignment on the sheaves, dimensional inaccuracies or variation of the material properties due to the manufacturing tolerances etc. The objective of this thesis is to study the reasons behind the uneven rope tensions and to develop and validate a parametric rope tension simulation model for a traction sheave elevator with a 1:1 roping factor, a diverting pulley, a compensation sheave, compensation ropes and a travelling cable. The focus is only on the suspension rope tensions. Finally, a partial sensitivity analysis is done on the model to analyse the impact of different phenomena on uneven rope tensions. The car and the counterweight are modelled as point masses and the suspension ropes as massless springs and dampers. The simulation model solves equations of motion of the system numerically and produces time-displacement histories from which the rope tensions can be calculated. Once validated, the modelling basics presented in this thesis can be applied to construct simulation models for more complicated systems, for example a traction sheave elevator with a different roping factor. The model validation was done by first examining the behaviour of the simulation model for an arbitrary elevator. Simulation parameters of the arbitrary elevator will be changed and the elevator behaviour will be studied. Second, simulation results are compared to experimental measurements. Both validations were done successfully, but the angular velocity of the sheaves had to be adjusted to decrease random vibrations and to get feasible results. A partial sensitivity analysis was d, Vetopyörähissin hissiköysien voimajakaumat tapaavat olla epätasapainossa. Ideaalitilanteessa jokaisessa köydessä olisi yhtä suuri jännitys, mutta todellisuudessa näin ei ole. Nämä voimavaihtelut saavat köydet ja vetopyörän kulumaan epätasaisesti. Tämä aiheuttaa kustannuksia ja luotettavuusongelmia hissiyhtiöille. Ilmiön takana on monia syitä, esimerkiksi erot köysien lepopituuksissa, köysien epätasainen kulku vetopyörällä tai valmistuksista johtuvat geometriset epätarkkuudet ja vaihtelut materiaaliominaisuuksissa. Diplomityön tavoitteena on esitellä syitä epätasaisiin köysivoimajakaumiin, sekä kehittää ja validoida parametrinen simulointi malli vetopyörähissille, jolla on ripustussuhde 1:1, taittopyörä, kompensaattori, kompensaatioköydet ja korikaapeli. Työssä keskitytään vain ripustusköysien köysivoimiin. Lopuksi osittaisherkkyysanalyysi tehdään simulointimallille, jotta voidaan selvittää eri ilmiöiden vaikutuksen suuruutta epätasaisiin köysivoimiin. Kori ja vastapaino mallinnetaan pistemassoina ja ripustusköydet massattomina jousi-vaimentimina. Simulaatiomalli ratkaisee systeemin liikeyhtälöt numeerisesti integroimalla ja tuottaa ratkaisuna on systeemin siirtymät ajan funktiona. Köysivoimat voidaan laskea systeemin siirtymä-aika historiasta. Mallin validoinnin onnistuttua, työssä esitettyjä perusteita käyttämällä voidaan ratkaista monimutkaisempia systeemejä, esimerkiksi hissejä erilaisilla ripustussuhteilla. Mallin validointi tapahtui kaksivaiheisesti. Ensiksi, mielivaltaisen hissin simulaatioparametrien arvoja muutetaan ja seurataan käyttääkö hissi odotuksien mukaisesti. Toiseksi, simulointituloksia verrataan mittaustuloksiin. Molemmat validoinnit onnistuttiin tekemään, mutta veto- ja taittopyörien pyörimisnopeutta täytyi rajoittaa, jotta mallin satunnainen värähtely lakkaisi. Simulointimallille tehtiin osittaisherkkyysanalyysi, jotta köyden pinnoitepaksuuden, kimmomoduulin, köysien kiinnitysjousien jäykkyyden ja luiston määrän vaikutuksien suuruutta epätasaisii

Measures of functional diversity are expected to predict community responses to land use and environmental change because, in contrast to taxonomic diversity, it is based on species traits rather than their identity. Here, we investigated the impact of landscape homogenisation on plants, butterflies and birds in terms of the proportion of arable field cover in southern Finland at local (0.25 km2) and regional (> 10 000 km2) scales using four functional diversity indices: functional richness, functional evenness, functional divergence and functional dispersion. No uniform response in functional diversity across taxa or scales was found. However, in all cases where we found a relationship between increasing arable field cover and any index of functional diversity, this relationship was negative. Butterfly functional richness decreased with increasing arable field cover, as did butterfly and bird functional evenness. For butterfly functional evenness, this was only evident in the most homogeneous regions. Butterfly and bird functional dispersion decreased in homogeneous regions regardless of the proportion of arable field cover locally. No effect of landscape heterogeneity on plant functional diversity was found at any spatial scale, but plant species richness decreased locally with increasing arable field cover. Overall, species richness responded more consistently to landscape homogenisation than did the functional diversity indices, with both positive and negative effects across species groups. Functional diversity indices are in theory valuable instruments for assessing effects of land use scenarios on ecosystem functioning. However, the applicability of empirical data requires deeper understanding of which traits reliably capture species’ vulnerability to environmental factors and of the ecological interpretation of the functional diversity indices. Our study provides novel insights into how the functional diversity of communities changes in response to agricul

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Agroecological symbiosis (AES) enhances productivity in agriculture. A case study of the first AES in Finland indicated that productivity of on the organic crop farm could be increased by producing biogas from green manure leys, fallows, and other locally available biomasses. At the same time, the farm became a net-energy producer instead of being an energy consumer. Combining the food processing, crop production, energy production and closer interaction with consumers increase the overall sustainability of the local food system

Visio tulevaisuuden ruokajärjestelmästä vastaa niin globaaleihin kuin paikallisiinkin haasteisiin, jotka johtuvat ilmastonmuutoksesta, ekosysteemipalvelujen heikkenemisestä, resurssien niukkenemisesta, ruoan ja energian lisääntyvästä tarpeesta, nopeasta sosiaalisesta eriarvoistumisesta, maahanmuutosta ja kansalaisten etääntymisestä ruoan alkuperästä. Visio ottaa kantaa ruoan huoltovarmuuteen kansallisesti ja ruokaan globaalina ihmisoikeutena. Visiossa hahmotellaan tulevaisuuden ruokajärjestelmä ja keinot sen toteuttamiseksi viiden seuraavan kokonaisuuden avulla. 1. Tavoitteena ruokaturva Kotimainen ruokaturva perustuu kannattavaan ja ympäristöystävälliseen, paikalliseen ja verkottuneeseen tuotantojärjestelmään, joka on tärkeimpien tuotannontekijöitten suhteen kansallisesti omavarainen. Järjestelmän perusominaisuuksiin kuuluu kierrätys ja vähäiset hävikit. Ruokajärjestelmä pystyy takaamaan kansalaisille kaikissa olosuhteissa ravitsemuksellisesti riittävän ruoan, samalla kun se tuottaa muita biotuotannon raaka-aineita ja energiaa. Ruokajärjestelmälle on annettu yhteisöjä vahvistava tehtävä, ja sen sosiaalipoliittinen merkitys on huomattu. 2. Kuluttamisesta osallistumiseen Osallistava ruokajärjestelmä kytkee jokaisen ihmisen ruoantuotantoon ja lisää näin tietoisuutta sekä arvostusta ruoan tuottamisesta ja ympäristöstä. Ruokakansalainen on tietoinen ruoan laadun eri ulottuvuuksista. Osallistuminen mm. lähiruokayhteisöihin luo merkityksellisyyttä ja hyvinvointia. 3. Ihmisten yhteisöjä ja luonnon resursseja vaalien Tehokkain ekologisin menetelmin viljelty maa tuottaa ravitsemuksellisesti korkeita ja varmoja satoja. Viljelymaat sitovat hiiltä maaperään ja hidastavat ilmastonmuutosta. Tasapainoinen tuotantorakenne on mahdollistanut kierrätysmaatalouden: rehu- ja ravinnevirrat ovat paikallisia. Maatalousmaan väheneminen on estetty maankäytön kokonaisvaltaisella suunnittelulla, ja maanvuokrausta on kehitetty pitkäjänteiseksi mahdollistamaan investoinnit maan laatuun. Maatalou

Meat and bone meal (MBM) is a by-product of the meat industry and is an important pathway for recycling of N and P. MBM contains about 8% N, 5% P, 1% K and 10% Ca. Field trials compared the effects of MBM and mineral fertilizer on yield and quality of sugar beet (2008-2009) and carrot (2010-2011) in Finland. MBM fertilisation of sugar beet grown on clay loam and sandy clay soil gave 11.4% (2008) and 19.6% (2009) lower yields than mineral fertilizers. The lower root yield in 2008 was compensated by higher extractable sugar content and lower amino-N, K and Na in root but no such compensation in root quality was detected for 2009. Mixing MBM with mineral NPK fertilizers had similar effects as MBM-alone. MBM (80 kg N ha(-1) 2010 and 60 kg N ha(-1) 2011) together with K fertilizer (Patentkali (R), 180 kg K ha(-1)) were applied for carrot to a fine sandy till soil in 2010 and sandy loam in 2011. MBM alone gave 14% lower total and marketable root yield than mineral fertilization. The lower yield was compensated by improved quality, lower NO3- content in the carrot and good storability. Adding extra fertilizer during growth or separating fertilization applications had no effect on root yield or quality. MBM performed in these cases mainly as an organic N fertilizer. The N supply from MBM is not sufficient for achieving same yields as with mineral fertilizers. The relative N efficiency of total N of MBM was 83% that of mineral fertilizers. MBM should be targeted on soils with low P status. We conclude that MBM is a reasonably competitive alternative to mineral fertilizers, and as a recycled fertilizer it is a good option for organic production.

The traditional production of mineral N and P fertilisers is unsustainable due its reliance on fossil fuels in the case of N, and on limited mineral resource stocks in the case of P. The use of alternative or complementary fertilisers that originate from organic waste materials is gaining interest. Organic farms, especially arable organic farms without livestock, need usable sources of plant nutrients. Meat bone meal (MBM), a potential organic fertiliser for agricultural crops, contains considerable amounts of nutrients (on average 8% N, 5% P, 1% K and 10% Ca). In EU countries, Commission regulation (EC) No 181/2006 authorised the use of MBM as an organic fertiliser. In this study, MBM was compared to conventional mineral NPK fertiliser. Two randomised complete block split-plot field experiments were conducted: one with spring barley (Hordeum vulgare) in two years; and another with oat (Avena sativa) for three years, including a fourth year of testing for residual effect. Compared to mineral fertiliser (20% N, 3% P and 9% K), MBM was applied at three N levels: 60, 90 and 120 kg N ha-1. The grain yield of both cereal species supported by MBM, did not differ from the yield obtained with the mineral fertiliser at any N level. At 120 kg N ha-1, the grain yield level with either type was ca. 4500 kg ha-1 of barley and 5000 kg ha-1 of oat, representing fair averages for Finnish conditions. Moreover, MBM and mineral fertilisation showed no differences in quality in terms of 1000-grain weight, test-weight, protein content and protein yield. Since MBM has a low N/P ratio, P was applied in surplus to attain comparable N levels. Therefore MBM fertilisation should be fitted for crop rotation and for meeting environmental requirements.

The traditional production of mineral N and P fertilisers is unsustainable due its reliance on fossil fuels in the case of N, and on limited mineral resource stocks in the case of P. The use of alternative or complementary fertilisers that originate from organic waste materials is gaining interest. Organic farms, especially arable organic farms without livestock, need usable sources of plant nutrients. Meat bone meal (MBM), a potential organic fertiliser for agricultural crops, contains considerable amounts of nutrients (on average 8% N, 5% P, 1% K and 10% Ca). In EU countries, Commission regulation (EC) No 181/2006 authorised the use of MBM as an organic fertiliser. In this study, MBM was compared to conventional mineral NPK fertiliser. Two randomised complete block split-plot field experiments were conducted: one with spring barley (Hordeum vulgare) in two years; and another with oat (Avena sativa) for three years, including a fourth year of testing for residual effect. Compared to mineral fertiliser (20% N, 3% P and 9% K), MBM was applied at three N levels: 60, 90 and 120 kg N ha-1. The grain yield of both cereal species supported by MBM, did not differ from the yield obtained with the mineral fertiliser at any N level. At 120 kg N ha-1, the grain yield level with either type was ca. 4500 kg ha-1 of barley and 5000 kg ha-1 of oat, representing fair averages for Finnish conditions. Moreover, MBM and mineral fertilisation showed no differences in quality in terms of 1000-grain weight, test-weight, protein content and protein yield. Since MBM has a low N/P ratio, P was applied in surplus to attain comparable N levels. Therefore MBM fertilisation should be fitted for crop rotation and for meeting environmental requirements.

The traditional production of mineral N and P fertilisers is unsustainable due its reliance on fossil fuels in the case of N, and on limited mineral resource stocks in the case of P. The use of alternative or complementary fertilisers that originate from organic waste materials is gaining interest. Organic farms, especially arable organic farms without livestock, need usable sources of plant nutrients. Meat bone meal (MBM), a potential organic fertiliser for agricultural crops, contains considerable amounts of nutrients (on average 8% N, 5% P, 1% K and 10% Ca). In EU countries, Commission regulation (EC) No 181/2006 authorised the use of MBM as an organic fertiliser. In this study, MBM was compared to conventional mineral NPK fertiliser. Two randomised complete block split-plot field experiments were conducted: one with spring barley (Hordeum vulgare) in two years; and another with oat (Avena sativa) for three years, including a fourth year of testing for residual effect. Compared to mineral fertiliser (20% N, 3% P and 9% K), MBM was applied at three N levels: 60, 90 and 120 kg N ha-1. The grain yield of both cereal species supported by MBM, did not differ from the yield obtained with the mineral fertiliser at any N level. At 120 kg N ha-1, the grain yield level with either type was ca. 4500 kg ha-1 of barley and 5000 kg ha-1 of oat, representing fair averages for Finnish conditions. Moreover, MBM and mineral fertilisation showed no differences in quality in terms of 1000-grain weight, test-weight, protein content and protein yield. Since MBM has a low N/P ratio, P was applied in surplus to attain comparable N levels. Therefore MBM fertilisation should be fitted for crop rotation and for meeting environmental requirements.

This study explores the impacts on agricultural and total GHG emissions of Finnish consumption if the share of animal based food products was reduced and if the share of ecologically produced food was to increase in Finland. GHG emissions associated with production of basic food items were quantified (per capita per annum) for current food consumption, for national standard diet recommendations, for a diet with no milk and beef and for a vegan diet including an oat-based milk susbstitute. The major source of GHG in primary food production is the cultivated soil. For the present average food consumption the emissions from the soil comprise 62 %, the share of emissions due to enteric fermentation is 24 %, whereas energy consumption and fertilizer manufacture both contribute about 8 %. Because of the extensive production mode, regarding GHG emissions the environmental performance, of organic production is poor.

This study explores the impacts on agricultural and total GHG emissions of Finnish consumption if the share of animal based food products was reduced and if the share of ecologically produced food was to increase in Finland. GHG emissions associated with production of basic food items were quantified (per capita per annum) for current food consumption, for national standard diet recommendations, for a diet with no milk and beef and for a vegan diet including an oat-based milk susbstitute. The major source of GHG in primary food production is the cultivated soil. For the present average food consumption the emissions from the soil comprise 62 %, the share of emissions due to enteric fermentation is 24 %, whereas energy consumption and fertilizer manufacture both contribute about 8 %. Because of the extensive production mode, regarding GHG emissions the environmental performance, of organic production is poor.

This study explores the impacts on agricultural and total GHG emissions of Finnish consumption if the share of animal based food products was reduced and if the share of ecologically produced food was to increase in Finland. GHG emissions associated with production of basic food items were quantified (per capita per annum) for current food consumption, for national standard diet recommendations, for a diet with no milk and beef and for a vegan diet including an oat-based milk susbstitute. The major source of GHG in primary food production is the cultivated soil. For the present average food consumption the emissions from the soil comprise 62 %, the share of emissions due to enteric fermentation is 24 %, whereas energy consumption and fertilizer manufacture both contribute about 8 %. Because of the extensive production mode, regarding GHG emissions the environmental performance, of organic production is poor.

This study explores the impacts on agricultural and total GHG emissions of Finnish consumption if the share of animal based food products was reduced and if the share of ecologically produced food was to increase in Finland. GHG emissions associated with production of basic food items were quantified (per capita per annum) for current food consumption, for national standard diet recommendations, for a diet with no milk and beef and for a vegan diet including an oat-based milk susbstitute. The major source of GHG in primary food production is the cultivated soil. For the present average food consumption the emissions from the soil comprise 62 %, the share of emissions due to enteric fermentation is 24 %, whereas energy consumption and fertilizer manufacture both contribute about 8 %. Because of the extensive production mode, regarding GHG emissions the environmental performance, of organic production is poor.

This study explores the impacts on agricultural and total GHG emissions of Finnish consumption if the share of animal based food products was reduced and if the share of ecologically produced food was to increase in Finland. GHG emissions associated with production of basic food items were quantified (per capita per annum) for current food consumption, for national standard diet recommendations, for a diet with no milk and beef and for a vegan diet including an oat-based milk susbstitute. The major source of GHG in primary food production is the cultivated soil. For the present average food consumption the emissions from the soil comprise 62 %, the share of emissions due to enteric fermentation is 24 %, whereas energy consumption and fertilizer manufacture both contribute about 8 %. Because of the extensive production mode, regarding GHG emissions the environmental performance, of organic production is poor.

The potential for and environmental consequences of localising primary production of food were investigated by considering different food consumption patterns, based on conventional and organic production. Environmental impact was assessed according to agricultural land use and numbers of production animals, both of which depend on food consumption. The results were quantified in terms of nutrient balances, greenhouse gas and acid emissions and the diversity of crop cultivation, which indicate eutrophication of watersheds, climate change and landscape changes, respectively. The study region was able to satisfy its own needs for all farming and food consumption scenarios. Dietary choice had a marked impact on agricultural land use and on the environmental parameters considered. Organic farming for local food production resulted in higher greenhouse gas emissions. Compared with mixed diets, the vegetarian diet was associated with lower emissions and nutrient surpluses, but also with reduced crop diversity. The arable areas allocated to leys and pastures were also smaller. The study area represents a predominantly rural region and is a net exporter of agricultural produce. Therefore, only part of the environmental impact of food production results from local needs. Both the differences among the dietary options and the overall environmental benefit of localised primary food production were greatly reduced when considering total agricultural production of the region. Much of the negative impact of agriculture is due to food consumption in the densely populated urban areas, but the consequences are mainly felt in the production areas. The environmental impacts of localisation of primary food production for the rural areas are small and inconsistent. The results indicate the importance of defining ‘local’ on a regional basis and including the urban food sinks in impact assessment.

The potential for and environmental consequences of localising primary production of food were investigated by considering different food consumption patterns, based on conventional and organic production. Environmental impact was assessed according to agricultural land use and numbers of production animals, both of which depend on food consumption. The results were quantified in terms of nutrient balances, greenhouse gas and acid emissions and the diversity of crop cultivation, which indicate eutrophication of watersheds, climate change and landscape changes, respectively. The study region was able to satisfy its own needs for all farming and food consumption scenarios. Dietary choice had a marked impact on agricultural land use and on the environmental parameters considered. Organic farming for local food production resulted in higher greenhouse gas emissions. Compared with mixed diets, the vegetarian diet was associated with lower emissions and nutrient surpluses, but also with reduced crop diversity. The arable areas allocated to leys and pastures were also smaller. The study area represents a predominantly rural region and is a net exporter of agricultural produce. Therefore, only part of the environmental impact of food production results from local needs. Both the differences among the dietary options and the overall environmental benefit of localised primary food production were greatly reduced when considering total agricultural production of the region. Much of the negative impact of agriculture is due to food consumption in the densely populated urban areas, but the consequences are mainly felt in the production areas. The environmental impacts of localisation of primary food production for the rural areas are small and inconsistent. The results indicate the importance of defining ‘local’ on a regional basis and including the urban food sinks in impact assessment.

The potential for and environmental consequences of localising primary production of food were investigated by considering different food consumption patterns, based on conventional and organic production. Environmental impact was assessed according to agricultural land use and numbers of production animals, both of which depend on food consumption. The results were quantified in terms of nutrient balances, greenhouse gas and acid emissions and the diversity of crop cultivation, which indicate eutrophication of watersheds, climate change and landscape changes, respectively. The study region was able to satisfy its own needs for all farming and food consumption scenarios. Dietary choice had a marked impact on agricultural land use and on the environmental parameters considered. Organic farming for local food production resulted in higher greenhouse gas emissions. Compared with mixed diets, the vegetarian diet was associated with lower emissions and nutrient surpluses, but also with reduced crop diversity. The arable areas allocated to leys and pastures were also smaller. The study area represents a predominantly rural region and is a net exporter of agricultural produce. Therefore, only part of the environmental impact of food production results from local needs. Both the differences among the dietary options and the overall environmental benefit of localised primary food production were greatly reduced when considering total agricultural production of the region. Much of the negative impact of agriculture is due to food consumption in the densely populated urban areas, but the consequences are mainly felt in the production areas. The environmental impacts of localisation of primary food production for the rural areas are small and inconsistent. The results indicate the importance of defining ‘local’ on a regional basis and including the urban food sinks in impact assessment.

We are investigating the role of legumes as components of bioenergy production. Two separate experiments, one with annual species and other with perennials, were established at Viikki in 2007. Selected grasses, legumes (or nitrogen fertilizer) and additional species were sown singly or in blends of two or three species.

In many European countries, organic agriculture has rapidly been transformed from a farmers' movement to an institutionalized part of agricultural policy. In certification, compliance with published organic standards is verified through annual inspections on farms. In Finland, the role of advice in organic inspections has been the subject of debate. Two inspections are used here to show how the term organic was defined and what the role of advice in relation to compliance was. Both compliance and advisory types of interaction between the inspector and the farmer were identified along an axis from “input substitution” to “system redesign.” The findings illustrate the heterogeneity of the processes and definitions of the term organic in connection with inspections. System redesign was less obvious in compliance than items in inspection documents suggest. The physical surroundings and the methods used affect inspection practices. Institutionalization is not merely negative, but may also provide resources for system redesign. Whether advice is part of a new and emerging way of enforcing inspections is considered. The findings suggest that dialogue and negotiation are necessary in promoting system redesign and in enhancing the developmental functions of organic inspections.

In many European countries, organic agriculture has rapidly been transformed from a farmers' movement to an institutionalized part of agricultural policy. In certification, compliance with published organic standards is verified through annual inspections on farms. In Finland, the role of advice in organic inspections has been the subject of debate. Two inspections are used here to show how the term organic was defined and what the role of advice in relation to compliance was. Both compliance and advisory types of interaction between the inspector and the farmer were identified along an axis from “input substitution” to “system redesign.” The findings illustrate the heterogeneity of the processes and definitions of the term organic in connection with inspections. System redesign was less obvious in compliance than items in inspection documents suggest. The physical surroundings and the methods used affect inspection practices. Institutionalization is not merely negative, but may also provide resources for system redesign. Whether advice is part of a new and emerging way of enforcing inspections is considered. The findings suggest that dialogue and negotiation are necessary in promoting system redesign and in enhancing the developmental functions of organic inspections.

In many European countries, organic agriculture has rapidly been transformed from a farmers' movement to an institutionalized part of agricultural policy. In certification, compliance with published organic standards is verified through annual inspections on farms. In Finland, the role of advice in organic inspections has been the subject of debate. Two inspections are used here to show how the term organic was defined and what the role of advice in relation to compliance was. Both compliance and advisory types of interaction between the inspector and the farmer were identified along an axis from “input substitution” to “system redesign.” The findings illustrate the heterogeneity of the processes and definitions of the term organic in connection with inspections. System redesign was less obvious in compliance than items in inspection documents suggest. The physical surroundings and the methods used affect inspection practices. Institutionalization is not merely negative, but may also provide resources for system redesign. Whether advice is part of a new and emerging way of enforcing inspections is considered. The findings suggest that dialogue and negotiation are necessary in promoting system redesign and in enhancing the developmental functions of organic inspections.

In many European countries, organic agriculture has rapidly been transformed from a farmers' movement to an institutionalized part of agricultural policy. In certification, compliance with published organic standards is verified through annual inspections on farms. In Finland, the role of advice in organic inspections has been the subject of debate. Two inspections are used here to show how the term organic was defined and what the role of advice in relation to compliance was. Both compliance and advisory types of interaction between the inspector and the farmer were identified along an axis from “input substitution” to “system redesign.” The findings illustrate the heterogeneity of the processes and definitions of the term organic in connection with inspections. System redesign was less obvious in compliance than items in inspection documents suggest. The physical surroundings and the methods used affect inspection practices. Institutionalization is not merely negative, but may also provide resources for system redesign. Whether advice is part of a new and emerging way of enforcing inspections is considered. The findings suggest that dialogue and negotiation are necessary in promoting system redesign and in enhancing the developmental functions of organic inspections.

In many European countries, organic agriculture has rapidly been transformed from a farmers' movement to an institutionalized part of agricultural policy. In certification, compliance with published organic standards is verified through annual inspections on farms. In Finland, the role of advice in organic inspections has been the subject of debate. Two inspections are used here to show how the term organic was defined and what the role of advice in relation to compliance was. Both compliance and advisory types of interaction between the inspector and the farmer were identified along an axis from “input substitution” to “system redesign.” The findings illustrate the heterogeneity of the processes and definitions of the term organic in connection with inspections. System redesign was less obvious in compliance than items in inspection documents suggest. The physical surroundings and the methods used affect inspection practices. Institutionalization is not merely negative, but may also provide resources for system redesign. Whether advice is part of a new and emerging way of enforcing inspections is considered. The findings suggest that dialogue and negotiation are necessary in promoting system redesign and in enhancing the developmental functions of organic inspections.