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Research suggests that coming from a lower economic background compromises social integration at school, yet the precise mechanisms underlying this link remain unknown. Therefore, this study examined the effect of household income on friendship network dynamics among classmates in a large sample of Swedish youths (n = 4787 from 235 classes, m age = 14.65, 51% girls, and 33% immigrant background), using multilevel longitudinal social network analysis. Over time, students from poorer households were less often selected as a friend by classmates and they less often initiated or maintained friendship ties than students from higher income households. Furthermore, different conceptualizations of income relative to classmates did not impact friendship formation tendencies. The findings indicate that theories of relative income do not extend understanding of students’ friendship formation beyond processes related to absolute income. In addition, this study suggests that the social integration of students from low-income households could be boosted by both promoting their agency in forming friendships and preventing exclusion by classmates.

Unequal divisions of paid work and care among new parents contribute to increasing inequalities. One explanation for this is joint utility maximization and the benefits of partners (temporarily) specializing in paid work and care. This paper examines the (dis)advantages of specializing compared to dividing tasks more equally by studying whether differences in specialization between same-sex and different-sex couples lead to differences in household earnings after entering parenthood. Using register data from Norway, Finland, Denmark, and Sweden and examining first-time parents, we show that female couples have a more equal within-couple income development during the transition to parenthood than different-sex couples do. However, we find no differences in household income (including or excluding social transfers) between the two types of couples. Although a more equal task division may be preferred from an individual perspective, our results show no evidence of a “best strategy” when it comes to maximizing household income.

PurposeTo determine the association between sociodemographic characteristics and blood pressure among a demographically diverse population-based sample of 10-14-year-old US adolescents.MethodsWe conducted cross-sectional analyses of data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study (N = 4,466), year two (2018-2020). Logistic and linear regression models were used to determine the association between sociodemographic characteristics (sex, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, household income, and parental education) with blood pressure among early adolescents.ResultsThe sample was 49.3% female and 46.7% non-White. Overall, 4.1% had blood pressures in the hypertensive range. Male sex was associated with 48% higher odds of hypertensive-range blood pressures than female sex (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02; 2.14), and Black race was associated with 85% higher odds of hypertensive-range blood pressures compared to White race (95% CI, 1.11; 3.08). Several annual household income categories less than $100,000 were associated with higher odds of hypertensive-range blood pressures compared to an annual household income greater than $200,000. We found effect modification by household income for Black adolescents; Black race (compared to White race) was more strongly associated with higher odds of hypertensive-range blood pressures in households with income greater than $75,000 (odds ratio 3.92; 95% CI, 1.95; 7.88) compared to those with income less than $75,000 (odds ratio 1.53; 95% CI, 0.80; 2.92).DiscussionSociodemographic characteristics are differentially associated with higher blood pressure in early adolescents. Future research could examine potential mediating factors (e.g., physical activity, nutrition, tobacco) linking sociodemographic characteristics and blood pressure to inform targeted interventions.

Sweden has been commended for incorporating sustainable practices in society. Personal responsibility is an important part to reduce climate emissions. Although, little is known about what factors impact how citizens experience their personal responsibility to reduce climate change. Previous studies have not explicitly focused on personal responsibility as a dependent variable in studies about climate change on a country level. This essay aims to examine the feeling of personal responsibility toward mitigating climate change through emotional processes. The purpose of this paper is to enrich knowledge about personal responsibility and if climate concern is mediating the effect on our independent variables, which we use to measure the feeling of personal responsibility. To accomplish this, we assess theoretical frameworks of emotional processes such as worry, affect and decision-making to investigate the mechanics behind personal responsibility. The essay also presents previous public opinion research on climate change emphasizing the role of gender, education, household income, age, media consumption, generalized trust, political trust, political orientation and how interested in politics. The essay uses quantitative methods to analyse data from the European Social Survey and two regression analyses to study the effect the independent variables have on personal responsibility in reducing climate change. We also examine if climate change concern mediates the effects of social and demographic factors on personal responsibility through a meditation analysis. Our results show that a majority of the factors influence the feeling of personal responsibility, and that climate concern can seemingly act as a mediating factor.

India is one of the world’s largest producers and exporters of cotton, the major raw material for the textile industry, employing more than 4.5 crore people in the country. The present study aimed to analyse the impact of adverse trade in Indian cotton sector on labor and household income by employing Social Analysis Matrix based multiplier model and partial equilibrium model. Indian textile sector has strong backward linkages with primary input multiplier and household income multiplier of 4.13 and 3.44, respectively and, thus transmitting external impacts to the labour and household income. The sector has a higher multiplier effect of 10.17 on production activities, of which the impact on the cotton sector is 0.126. Fall in export and domestic demand for clothing and apparel in addition to movement restrictions around the world during the period 2020-2021, disrupted cotton supply chain and consequent fall in demand and price of the commodity. Simulations for the increase in carry-over stock and reduction in domestic consumption and cotton exports revealed that limiting the commodity's production and supply would retain the market equilibrium and increase the domestic price to the advantage of the farmers. The study reveals that dynamics in the Indian cotton sector trade significantly impacted labour and household income. Appropriate planning for areas under cotton cultivation and alternate procurement mechanisms during emergency situations would stabilise the Indian cotton economy.

The files include the data and replication materials for “Grandmothers and the gender gap in the Mexican labor market.” The dataset covers three-generation households from 2005 to 2020. The primary data source is the Mexican Occupation and Employment Survey collected by the Mexican Bureau of Statistics (INEGI). The data has a rotating panel format, and each household is observed for five quarters.

Climate change threatens the well-being of millions of people in Latin America and the Caribbean. The region is experiencing an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events and disasters, which disproportionately affect the poorest and most vulnerable groups. Moreover, the accelerated degradation of terrestrial, marine, and coastal ecosystems endangers the livelihoods of millions of people. Consequently, the implementation of mitigation policies to curb the advancement of climate change, such as the elimination of energy subsidies and the reconversion of polluting industries, can have far-reaching implications for household income and consumption levels. This paper analyzes the contributions that social protection systems can make to the climate agenda, as well as the key gaps and challenges that must be addressed to effectively respond to these emerging threats.

Monthly cash transfers delivered to vulnerable middle-income households in Colombia increase per capita income, but the effects on spending appear small and related to nonfood spending. Cash transfers have a large impact when beneficiary households experience severe economic shocks, suggesting lack of insurance as a major constraint affecting non-poor but vulnerable households. By encouraging the adoption of digital saving accounts, the program also increased access to formal credit.

In this chapter reviews the literature and inform policy debates about the effects of minimum wages (MW) on income inequality in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC).

This analysis makes use of economic forecasts for 2020 issued by the European Commission in Autumn 2019 and Spring 2020, and of a counterfactual under a no-policy change assumption, to analyse the impact of the COVID-19 crisis on EU households' income. Additionally, our analysis assesses the cushioning effect of discretionary fiscal policy measures taken by the EU Member States. We find that the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to affect significantly households' disposable income in the EU, with lower income households being more severely hit. However, our results show that due to policy intervention, the impact of the crisis is expected to be similar to the one experienced during the 2008–2009 financial crisis. In detail, our results indicate that discretionary fiscal policy measures will play a significant cushioning role, reducing the size of the income loss (from -9.3% to -4.3% for the average equivalised disposable income), its regressivity and mitigating the poverty impact of the pandemic. We conclude that policy interventions are therefore instrumental in cushioning against the impact of the crisis on inequality and poverty.

Humanitarian programming in fragile economies often use unconditional cash transfers (UCTs) to offset food insecurity. However, there is an increasing focus on using cash transfers to boost household incomes beyond the short-term through micro-enterprise start-up and growth. This paper conducts a randomised control trial to measure the impact of three different sizes of business grants against UCT in Somalia. We find that giving the same amount of money as a lump sum business grant results in higher likelihood of business ownership and income compared with UCT in the short run (3-4 months after the transfers). However, the impacts are larger and persist 3 years later only for those who received larger amount of grants. The results indicate our 'medium'-sized grant being more cost-effective. © 2022 The Author(s).

The use of mosquito nets, primarily for targeting small and/or juvenile fish, has rapidly increased in Western Indian Ocean shallow seagrass beds and coral reefs over the last 20 years. However, to date, invertebrate by-catch by locally-made fishing gear has not been reported. We studied the mosquito net trawl fishery in seagrass areas in the Bay of Toliara, Southwest Madagascar through the GPS tracking of fishers from August 2018 to February 2019. Catches were monitored through monthly landing surveys to characterize spatial temporal patterns in the abundance and diversity of macroinvertebrates in the seagrass beds. Fishing was carried out at low tide, mostly at night, by fishers pulling a hand-made trawl net of varying dimensions. Overall, 43 macroinvertebrate taxa were identified out of 217,080 individuals collected from 109 catch samples. Catches were generally composed of crustaceans (mainly Portunidae, Processidae, Penaeidae, and Alpheidae). The crab Thalamita mitsiensis largely dominated the abundance and biomass of the macroinvertebrate assemblage (from 6% to 100% and from 5 to 100% of the overall density and biomass, respectively). Macroinvertebrates composed 1.5% to 100% of the total catch per trip (i.e., 4–55 kg trip−1). They were sold for human consumption or animal feed, which provided additional income to fishers (USD 1–24 trip−1 and 1–72% of catch income per trip). This study revealed that macroinvertebrate resources provide valuable by-catch to small-scale fishers in Southwest Madagascar. This bycatch generates income that further encourages the use of mosquito net trawls and exacerbates their negative effects on coastal seagrass ecosystems and fisheries.

Household saving is a source of investment and is regarded as a key factor in economic growth. This study is an effort to examine the determinants of household saving in Kabul, Afghanistan. The several economic and socio-demographic factors that affect household saving have been completely examined in this study. The data were collected through a well-structured questionnaire from 384 households. Through stratified random sampling, 384 household’s heads were interviewed. For statistical investigation we applied Diagnostic test and Generalized Least Square (GLS) methods to our model. It is observed from the estimated result of this study that income is a major and most important determinant of household saving which positively affects the saving of a household. Further, results also reveal that household size has negative and significant relationship with household saving. The educational level of the household head shows a negative impact on household saving. The results further indicate that married household head and male household head are likely to save more as compared to unmarried household head and female household head respectively. Moreover, age of the household head confirms the Life-Cycle-Hypothesis. The results reveal that with the increase in age at middle age of an individual the saving increases, however it decreases at the latter age of life.

Humanitarian programming in fragile economies often use unconditional cash transfers (UCTs) to offset food insecurity. However, there is an increasing focus on using cash transfers to boost household incomes beyond the short-term through micro-enterprise start-up and growth. This paper conducts a randomised control trial to measure the impact of three different sizes of business grants against UCT in Somalia. We find that giving the same amount of money as a lump sum business grant results in higher likelihood of business ownership and income compared with UCT in the short run (3-4 months after the transfers). However, the impacts are larger and persist 3 years later only for those who received larger amount of grants. The results indicate our 'medium'-sized grant being more cost-effective. © 2022 The Author(s).

Extensive research has been conducted in the existing literature to examine the impact of health outcomes on macroeconomic indicators. The micro-level investigation of public healthcare services, particularly utilisation, is unexplored in Pakistan. This study aims to investigate the factors that influence the utilisation of public health care services in Pakistan. The utilisation of the public health care services was determined in this study by incorporating socioeconomic, demographic, and regional covariates. Data was sourced from the PSLM survey (2019-2020) for the empirical analysis. The empirical evidence is based on the Ordered Logit model. The findings of the OLogit model indicate a positive association between literacy rate and household income with a higher likelihood of frequent and consistent utilisation of public health care services. The study confirms the existence of urban-rural disparity in utilising public health services. The findings of this study reveal a notable difference regarding the participation of the poor household in using health care services frequently or regularly. This study's findings hold considerable implications concerning the urban-rural disparity, equitable distribution of health care, and the enhancement of health care accessibility through increased purchasing power.

The use of mosquito nets, primarily for targeting small and/or juvenile fish, has rapidly increased in Western Indian Ocean shallow seagrass beds and coral reefs over the last 20 years. However, to date, invertebrate by-catch by locally-made fishing gear has not been reported. We studied the mosquito net trawl fishery in seagrass areas in the Bay of Toliara, Southwest Madagascar through the GPS tracking of fishers from August 2018 to February 2019. Catches were monitored through monthly landing surveys to characterize spatial temporal patterns in the abundance and diversity of macroinvertebrates in the seagrass beds. Fishing was carried out at low tide, mostly at night, by fishers pulling a hand-made trawl net of varying dimensions. Overall, 43 macroinvertebrate taxa were identified out of 217,080 individuals collected from 109 catch samples. Catches were generally composed of crustaceans (mainly Portunidae, Processidae, Penaeidae, and Alpheidae). The crab Thalamita mitsiensis largely dominated the abundance and biomass of the macroinvertebrate assemblage (from 6% to 100% and from 5 to 100% of the overall density and biomass, respectively). Macroinvertebrates composed 1.5% to 100% of the total catch per trip (i.e., 4–55 kg trip−1). They were sold for human consumption or animal feed, which provided additional income to fishers (USD 1–24 trip−1 and 1–72% of catch income per trip). This study revealed that macroinvertebrate resources provide valuable by-catch to small-scale fishers in Southwest Madagascar. This bycatch generates income that further encourages the use of mosquito net trawls and exacerbates their negative effects on coastal seagrass ecosystems and fisheries.

We investigate whether an individual's information milieu-an individual's residential neighborhood and co-workers-affects the decision to get a COVID-19 vaccine. The decision to accept or refuse a vaccine is intensely personal and involves the processing of information about phenomena likely to be unfamiliar to most individuals. One can thus expect an interplay between an individual's level of education and skills and the information processing of others whom with whom she can interact and whose decision she can probe and observe. Using individual-level data for adults in Sweden, we can identify the proportion of an individual's neighborhood and workplace who are unvaccinated as indicators of possible peer effects. We find that individuals with low levels of educational attainment and occupational skills are more likely to be unvaccinated when exposed to other unvaccinated individuals at work and in the residential neighborhood. The peer effects in each of these information milieus further increases the likelihood of not getting vaccinated-with the two acting as information channels that reinforce one another.

New developments of existing technologies over time have led to emergent patterns of technology adoption and accordingly changing impacts on economy and society. Focusing on the arrival of mobile Internet in the early 2010s in developing countries, we identified significant positive effects of mobile Internet on provinces’ average household income in Vietnam. The effect sizes are larger for lower-income quintiles groups and for rural areas, suggesting the more inclusive changing impact of the innovation over the last decade. Preliminary evidence of impact mechanisms via skilled employment rates and (formal) wages are also presented. The evidence from Vietnam, a lower middle-income country, can bring further understanding in the extent of development impacts of second-generation mobile for development (M4D 2.0) in particular and ICT for development (ICT4D) in general.

Master in Economics: Empirical Applications and Policies. Academic Year 2022/23., Replacement rates are an effective way to analyze how income evolves following the retirement of an individual as the ratio of pre- and post-retirement income. Individuals generally live in a multi-person household, which should be taken into consideration in the study of replacement rates. Several European countries have committed themselves to reform their pension system with the objective to reign in public spending. The present study analyzes how household income evolves following the retirement of a household member to describe the current situation that households face. It does so by means of the EU SILC dataset, which is microeconomic and longitudinal data. It finds that household income falls following the retirement of a household member, however that households can maintain their standard of living based on a threshold for replacement rates advanced by previous authors.

Se realizó un estudio con el objetivo de caracterizar la producción avícola de traspatio en el estado de Campeche, México, como el inicio de un programa para la utilización de los recursos genéticos avícolas locales. Se encuestó a un total de 260 productores. Las actividades productivas de traspatio las realizan los padres. Los productores destinan un promedio de 0.20 ± 0.1 hectáreas para la cría de pollos locales (PL). El tamaño de la parvada fue de 24.4 ± 1.3 aves por hogar. El número de huevos/gallina/año fue de 45.8 ± 1.6. Se utiliza tanto el sistema de producción en confinamiento como en semi-confinamiento. Las aves son alimentadas con maíz, excepto los pollitos, que son alimentados con alimento balanceado comercial. Durante la época de lluvias se observan con mayor frecuencia problemas de diarrea y enfermedades respiratorias. El peso corporal es la principal característica por la que las aves reproductoras son seleccionadas dentro y fuera de la parvada. Los huevos destinados a incubación son elegidos con base en su tamaño y el número de días transcurridos desde que son puestos. La producción avícola de traspatio tiene como principales limitantes la falta de alimento para los animales, las enfermedades, los depredadores y la falta de asistencia técnica. En conclusión, la producción avícola de traspatio, basada en animales locales, provee de una fuente fácilmente disponible de proteína de origen animal e ingresos económicos a los hogares del estado de Campeche, México., A study was conducted to characterize the backyard chicken production system in Campeche State, Mexico, as the basis of a program for utilizing local poultry genetic resources. A total of 260 surveys were administered in person. The housewives undertake backyard production activities. Farmers have, on average, 0.20 ± 0.1 hectares for raising local chickens (LC). Flock size was 24.4 ± 1.3 birds per household. The number of egg/hen/year was 45.8 ± 1.6. Confined and semi-confined production systems are used. Farmers fed chickens with corn, whereas chicks were fed with commercial feed. During the rainy season, flu and diarrheal diseases are more frequently observed. Body size is the main trait for acquiring/selecting breeders within/outside the flock. Selection of eggs for incubation is based on size and freshness. Families consume LC meat 3.5 ± 0.2 times a month and 17.0 ± 1.0 eggs a week. Farmers sell 1.6 ± 0.2 birds per month and 7.6 ± 0.7 eggs per week to get $8.99 ± 0.93 and $3.82 ± 0.33 USD, respectively. Feed shortages, diseases, predators, and lack of technical assistance services were the major constraints for LC backyard production. In conclusion, backyard chicken production based on LC provides a readily available source of animal protein and cash income for households in Campeche State, Mexico.

Household saving is a source of investment and is regarded as a key factor in economic growth. This study is an effort to examine the determinants of household saving in Kabul, Afghanistan. The several economic and socio-demographic factors that affect household saving have been completely examined in this study. The data were collected through a well-structured questionnaire from 384 households. Through stratified random sampling, 384 household’s heads were interviewed. For statistical investigation we applied Diagnostic test and Generalized Least Square (GLS) methods to our model. It is observed from the estimated result of this study that income is a major and most important determinant of household saving which positively affects the saving of a household. Further, results also reveal that household size has negative and significant relationship with household saving. The educational level of the household head shows a negative impact on household saving. The results further indicate that married household head and male household head are likely to save more as compared to unmarried household head and female household head respectively. Moreover, age of the household head confirms the Life-Cycle-Hypothesis. The results reveal that with the increase in age at middle age of an individual the saving increases, however it decreases at the latter age of life.

Humanitarian programming in fragile economies often use unconditional cash transfers (UCTs) to offset food insecurity. However, there is an increasing focus on using cash transfers to boost household incomes beyond the short-term through micro-enterprise start-up and growth. This paper conducts a randomised control trial to measure the impact of three different sizes of business grants against UCT in Somalia. We find that giving the same amount of money as a lump sum business grant results in higher likelihood of business ownership and income compared with UCT in the short run (3-4 months after the transfers). However, the impacts are larger and persist 3 years later only for those who received larger amount of grants. The results indicate our 'medium'-sized grant being more cost-effective. © 2022 The Author(s).

Household saving is a source of investment and is regarded as a key factor in economic growth. This study is an effort to examine the determinants of household saving in Kabul, Afghanistan. The several economic and socio-demographic factors that affect household saving have been completely examined in this study. The data were collected through a well-structured questionnaire from 384 households. Through stratified random sampling, 384 household’s heads were interviewed. For statistical investigation we applied Diagnostic test and Generalized Least Square (GLS) methods to our model. It is observed from the estimated result of this study that income is a major and most important determinant of household saving which positively affects the saving of a household. Further, results also reveal that household size has negative and significant relationship with household saving. The educational level of the household head shows a negative impact on household saving. The results further indicate that married household head and male household head are likely to save more as compared to unmarried household head and female household head respectively. Moreover, age of the household head confirms the Life-Cycle-Hypothesis. The results reveal that with the increase in age at middle age of an individual the saving increases, however it decreases at the latter age of life.

Extensive research has been conducted in the existing literature to examine the impact of health outcomes on macroeconomic indicators. The micro-level investigation of public healthcare services, particularly utilisation, is unexplored in Pakistan. This study aims to investigate the factors that influence the utilisation of public health care services in Pakistan. The utilisation of the public health care services was determined in this study by incorporating socioeconomic, demographic, and regional covariates. Data was sourced from the PSLM survey (2019-2020) for the empirical analysis. The empirical evidence is based on the Ordered Logit model. The findings of the OLogit model indicate a positive association between literacy rate and household income with a higher likelihood of frequent and consistent utilisation of public health care services. The study confirms the existence of urban-rural disparity in utilising public health services. The findings of this study reveal a notable difference regarding the participation of the poor household in using health care services frequently or regularly. This study's findings hold considerable implications concerning the urban-rural disparity, equitable distribution of health care, and the enhancement of health care accessibility through increased purchasing power.

Extensive research has been conducted in the existing literature to examine the impact of health outcomes on macroeconomic indicators. The micro-level investigation of public healthcare services, particularly utilisation, is unexplored in Pakistan. This study aims to investigate the factors that influence the utilisation of public health care services in Pakistan. The utilisation of the public health care services was determined in this study by incorporating socioeconomic, demographic, and regional covariates. Data was sourced from the PSLM survey (2019-2020) for the empirical analysis. The empirical evidence is based on the Ordered Logit model. The findings of the OLogit model indicate a positive association between literacy rate and household income with a higher likelihood of frequent and consistent utilisation of public health care services. The study confirms the existence of urban-rural disparity in utilising public health services. The findings of this study reveal a notable difference regarding the participation of the poor household in using health care services frequently or regularly. This study's findings hold considerable implications concerning the urban-rural disparity, equitable distribution of health care, and the enhancement of health care accessibility through increased purchasing power.

Se realizó un estudio con el objetivo de caracterizar la producción avícola de traspatio en el estado de Campeche, México, como el inicio de un programa para la utilización de los recursos genéticos avícolas locales. Se encuestó a un total de 260 productores. Las actividades productivas de traspatio las realizan los padres. Los productores destinan un promedio de 0.20 ± 0.1 hectáreas para la cría de pollos locales (PL). El tamaño de la parvada fue de 24.4 ± 1.3 aves por hogar. El número de huevos/gallina/año fue de 45.8 ± 1.6. Se utiliza tanto el sistema de producción en confinamiento como en semi-confinamiento. Las aves son alimentadas con maíz, excepto los pollitos, que son alimentados con alimento balanceado comercial. Durante la época de lluvias se observan con mayor frecuencia problemas de diarrea y enfermedades respiratorias. El peso corporal es la principal característica por la que las aves reproductoras son seleccionadas dentro y fuera de la parvada. Los huevos destinados a incubación son elegidos con base en su tamaño y el número de días transcurridos desde que son puestos. La producción avícola de traspatio tiene como principales limitantes la falta de alimento para los animales, las enfermedades, los depredadores y la falta de asistencia técnica. En conclusión, la producción avícola de traspatio, basada en animales locales, provee de una fuente fácilmente disponible de proteína de origen animal e ingresos económicos a los hogares del estado de Campeche, México., A study was conducted to characterize the backyard chicken production system in Campeche State, Mexico, as the basis of a program for utilizing local poultry genetic resources. A total of 260 surveys were administered in person. The housewives undertake backyard production activities. Farmers have, on average, 0.20 ± 0.1 hectares for raising local chickens (LC). Flock size was 24.4 ± 1.3 birds per household. The number of egg/hen/year was 45.8 ± 1.6. Confined and semi-confined production systems are used. Farmers fed chickens with corn, whereas chicks were fed with commercial feed. During the rainy season, flu and diarrheal diseases are more frequently observed. Body size is the main trait for acquiring/selecting breeders within/outside the flock. Selection of eggs for incubation is based on size and freshness. Families consume LC meat 3.5 ± 0.2 times a month and 17.0 ± 1.0 eggs a week. Farmers sell 1.6 ± 0.2 birds per month and 7.6 ± 0.7 eggs per week to get $8.99 ± 0.93 and $3.82 ± 0.33 USD, respectively. Feed shortages, diseases, predators, and lack of technical assistance services were the major constraints for LC backyard production. In conclusion, backyard chicken production based on LC provides a readily available source of animal protein and cash income for households in Campeche State, Mexico.

Background Although intrahousehold transmission is a key source of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) infections, studies to date have not analysed socioeconomic risk factors on the household level or household clustering of severe COVID-19. We quantify household income differences and household clustering of COVID-19 incidence and severity. Methods and findings We used register-based cohort data with individual-level linkage across various administrative registers for the total Finnish population living in working-age private households (N = 4,315,342). Incident COVID-19 cases (N = 38,467) were identified from the National Infectious Diseases Register from 1 July 2020 to 22 February 2021. Severe cases (N = 625) were defined as having at least 3 consecutive days of inpatient care with a COVID-19 diagnosis and identified from the Care Register for Health Care between 1 July 2020 and 31 December 2020. We used 2-level logistic regression with individuals nested within households to estimate COVID-19 incidence and case severity among those infected. Adjusted for age, sex, and regional characteristics, the incidence of COVID-19 was higher (odds ratio [OR] 1.67, 95% CI 1.58 to 1.77, p < 0.001, 28.4% of infections) among individuals in the lowest household income quintile than among those in the highest quintile (18.9%). The difference attenuated (OR 1.23, 1.16 to 1.30, p < 0.001) when controlling for foreign background but not when controlling for other household-level risk factors. In fact, we found a clear income gradient in incidence only among people with foreign background but none among those with native background. The odds of severe illness among those infected were also higher in the lowest income quintile (OR 1.97, 1.52 to 2.56, p < 0.001, 28.0% versus 21.6% in the highest quintile), but this difference was fully attenuated (OR 1.08, 0.77 to 1.52, p = 0.64) when controlling for other individual-level risk factors—comorbidities, occupational status, and

Purpose: The authors aim to demonstrate the impact of allowing for unequal intra-household distribution of resources on income poverty and income inequality. Design/methodology/approach: The paper applies a collective consumption model to study the intra-household distribution of resources in Visegrád countries (V4). It utilises subjective financial satisfaction as a proxy for indirect utility from individual consumption to estimate the indifference scales within couples instead of the traditional equivalence scale. The European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) 2013 and 2018 data are applied. Findings: This study’s results indicate substantial economies of scale from living in a couple that are generally higher than implied by the commonly applied equivalence scale. The sharing rule estimates suggest that at the mean of distribution factors, women receive a consumption share between 0.4 and 0.6; however, some of the results are close to an equal sharing of 0.5. The female consumption share rises with her contribution to household income. Regarding income poverty and inequality, the authors show that both these measures might be underestimated in the traditional approach to equal sharing of resources. Originality/value: The authors add to the empirics by estimating indifference scales for Czechia (CZ), Hungary (HU), Poland (PL) and Slovakia (SK), countries that have not been involved in previous research.

The objective of this article is to study the impact of the cultural deep-rooted fondness in Mexico for festivities and celebrations on household spending behavior. Using an interdisciplinary approach, this work analyzes official records of expenditure related to festivities in Mexico. The study finds evidence of an abundant allocation of family economic resources to events such as family parties, festivals, parades, and civic and religious ceremonies. Some of the celebrations are held regularly, whereas others take place on special occasions in individuals’ lives. In either case, the result is a significant flow of spending to finance the appetite for revelry. This work concludes that, as a result of cultural factors, Mexican people are used to holding celebrations quite frequently. Those celebrations often involve conspicuous spending. Both the frequency and the ostentatious spending impact negatively on family finances for urban and rural households, the latter bearing the brunt of the burden because their average income is lower than that of the former.

Der Forschungsbericht zur Repräsentativuntersuchung "Ausgewählte Migrantengruppen in Deutschland" (RAM 2015) enthält Erkenntnisse über vier große Gruppen von Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund. Hierfür wurden zwischen Juni bis September 2015 insgesamt 2.498 Personen interviewt, darunter 633 polnische, 632 rumänische, 614 türkische Staatsangehörige und 619 deutsche Staatsangehörige mit türkischem Migrationshintergrund. Der vorliegende Bericht liefert einen deskriptiven Überblick über ausgewählte Aspekte der Integration und Einstellungen der im Jahr 2015 befragten vier Gruppen., The research report on the representative survey entitled "Selected groups of migrants in Germany" (RAM 2015) contains information on four large groups of people with a migration background. This involved interviewing a total of 2,498 people between June and September 2015, 633 of whom were Polish, 632 were Romanian and 614 were Turkish nationals, as well as 619 German nationals with a Turkish migration background. This report provides a descriptive overview of selected aspects of integration and attitudes among the four groups of people who were surveyed in 2015.

This report is intended to provide an overview of income measures employed in the EU-SILC and to inform on procedures which can be employed to harmonize these data both for comparisons over time and between countries. Each subsection provides a short overview over a topic or method and contains example code for Stata and SPSS which can be used to implement the described procedures. Alongside this report syntax files as well as a data files for both SPSS and Stata are delivered which include the code provided here as well auxiliary country level data drawn from the Eurostat database. In this updated version, an extended appendix is included that explains how to generate and replicate these files in more detail.

Background: Adults with diabetes or obesity are more likely to be physically inactive than healthy adults. Physical activity is essential in the management of both diseases, necessitating targeted interventions in these groups. This study analysed physical inactivity (defined as not taking part in leisure-time physical activity) in over 100,000 adults in Germany considering their body mass index and the presence of diabetes. Furthermore, the relationship between specific socio-demographic factors with physical inactivity was investigated, particularly focussing diabetic and obese people, to refine the identification of risk-groups for targeted interventions on physical activity promotion. Methods: Data from 13 population-based health surveys conducted in Germany from 1997 to 2018 were used. The relevant variables extracted from these datasets were merged and employed in the analyses. We included data from 129,886 individuals in the BMI analyses and 58,311 individuals in the diabetes analyses. Logistic regression analyses were performed to identify the importance of six socio-demographic variables (age, sex/gender, education, income, employment, and migration) for the risk of physical inactivity. Results: Obese and diabetic people reported a higher prevalence of physical inactivity than those who were not affected. Logistic regression analyses revealed advanced age, low education level, and low household income as risk factors for physical inactivity in all groups. A two-sided migration background and unemployment also indicated a higher probability of physical inactivity. Conclusion: Similar socio-demographic barriers appear to be important determinants of physical inactivity, regardless of BMI status or the presence of diabetes. However, physical activity promoting interventions in obese and diabetic adults should consider the specific disease-related characteristics of these groups. A special need for target group specific physical activity programmes in adults fr

How are gendered work-family life courses associated with financial well-being in retirement? In this article we compare the cohorts born 1920-1950 in West Germany and Switzerland, whose adult life courses are characterized by similar strong male-breadwinner contexts in both countries. The countries differ in that Switzerland represented a liberal pension system, whereas Germany represented a corporatist protective pension system when these cohorts retired. We therefore assess how gendered work-family life courses that developed in similar male-breadwinner contexts are related to financial well-being in retirement in different pension systems. Using data from the SHARELIFE survey we conduct multichannel sequence analysis and cluster analysis to identify groups of typical work-family life courses from ages 20 to 59. Regression models estimate how these groups are associated with the individual pension income and household income in retirement. Results show that women who combined motherhood with part time work and extended periods out of the labour force have even lower individual pension income in Switzerland compared to their German peers. This relative disadvantage partly extends to lower household income in retirement. Findings support that male breadwinner policies earlier in life combined with liberal pension policies later in life, as in Switzerland, intensify pension penalties for typical female work-family life courses of early motherhood and weak labour force attachment. We conclude that life course sensitive social policies should harmonize regulations, which are in effect earlier in life with policies later in life for specific birth cohorts.

This paper analyses the structure of the European income inequality by a decomposition in a within- and between-component. It illustrates a replication of the work of Beblo and Knaus (Rev Income Wealth 47(3):301–333, 2001) and decomposes the income inequality for the EU-28 in 2014 by using data from the European Survey on Income and Living Conditions. The Theil index is applied to additively decompose the sources of inequality into a within- and between-component by countries, country groups and demographic groups. This is done by using equivalised disposable household income and income before transfers and taxes. The results show that inequality, with regard to disposable income, is highest for households with household heads older than 59 years and lowest for households with children. Moreover, high income countries have lower inequality, higher social expenditures and show a stronger relative reduction of income inequality after transfers and taxes than low income countries. On country group level, Social-Democratic countries have the lowest income inequality and redistribute most, while the opposite holds true for Baltic countries.

Im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Arbeit und Soziales hat Kantar Public (früher: TNS Infratest Sozialforschung) mit der Studie zur "Alterssicherung in Deutschland 2019" (ASID 2019) eine breit angelegte Untersuchung zur Lebens- und Einkommenssituation älterer Menschen in Deutschland durchgeführt. Erhoben und analysiert werden neben soziodemografischen Merkmalen vor allem Art, Höhe, Verteilung und Determinanten der Einkommen der Bevölkerung ab 60 Jahren auf der Ebene von Personen und Ehepaaren. Aus der aktuellen Erhebung (Personen im Alter von 60 bis unter 85 Jahren) und einer statistischen Fortschreibung der Daten der ASID 2015 (Personen ab 80 Jahren) liegen insgesamt Angaben zu 30.431 Personen vor, davon 9.608 Ehepaare, 7.418 alleinstehende Frauen und 3.797 alleinstehende Männer. Für die Auswertung wurde die Stichprobe auf die Gesamtbevölkerung ab 60 Jahren hochgerechnet. Die wichtigsten Ergebnisse werden im Endbericht sowie in drei Tabellenbänden (Deutschland, alte Länder, neue Länder) ausgewiesen., On behalf of the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs and for the ninth time since 1986, Kantar Public (formerly known as TNS Infratest Sozialforschung) run a comprehensive study on "Old-age security in Germany 2019" (Alterssicherung in Deutschland 2019; ASID 2019). In addition to socio-demographic characteristics, the type, amount, distribution and determinants of income of people aged 60+ are analyzed, both at the level of persons and married couples. Based on the current survey (people aged 60 to under 85 years) and a statistical projection of the ASID 2015 data (people aged 80 and over), a total of 30,431 datasets is available, of whom 9,608 are married couples, 7,418 single women and 3,797 single men. For the analyses, sample data was extrapolated to the total population. The most important results are shown in the final report and in three volumes of tables (Germany, old Länder, new Länder).

It is sometimes observed and frequently assumed that top incomes in household surveys worldwide are poorly measured and that this problem biases the measurement of income inequality. This paper tests this assumption and compares the performance of reweighting and replacing methods designed to correct inequality measures for top-income biases generated by data issues such as unit or item non-response. Results for the European Union’s Statistics on Income and Living Conditions survey indicate that survey response probabilities are negatively associated with income and bias the measurement of inequality downward. Correcting for this bias with reweighting, the Gini coefficient for Europe is revised upwards by 3.7 percentage points. Similar results are reached with replacing of top incomes using values from the Pareto distribution when the cut point for the analysis is below the 95th percentile. For higher cut points, results with replacing are inconsistent suggesting that popular parametric distributions do not mimic real data well at the very top of the income distribution.

Rescue services are one of the most crucial actors in providing fire-related societal protection, particularly interms of response times. To achieve this, considerable funding and/or full-time organisations are required –something that is not always feasible and leads to differences in rescue service related protection in differentmunicipalities. In turn, the question is how such variations affect the perceived risk of being injured in a resi-dential fire and levels of general institutional trust in the municipality. By utilising a dataset on risk perceptionand trust, combined with data on the ability and structure of municipal rescue services, this study can show that amunicipal’s average perception of the risk of attaining a fire-related injury closely follows response times –indicating that individuals living in areas with less societal protection are aware of this fact. However, the resultsalso indicate that general institutional trust and perception of risk on a municipal level seems to relate to eachother in such a way that municipal types (with similar sociodemographic characteristics and rescue serviceability) congregate around similar levels of perceived risk and trust. In turn, this study therefore indicates thatperceived risk and trust differs in different municipalities and that efficiency measurements not necessarilyencompass all these differences.

Rescue services are one of the most crucial actors in providing fire-related societal protection, particularly interms of response times. To achieve this, considerable funding and/or full-time organisations are required –something that is not always feasible and leads to differences in rescue service related protection in differentmunicipalities. In turn, the question is how such variations affect the perceived risk of being injured in a resi-dential fire and levels of general institutional trust in the municipality. By utilising a dataset on risk perceptionand trust, combined with data on the ability and structure of municipal rescue services, this study can show that amunicipal’s average perception of the risk of attaining a fire-related injury closely follows response times –indicating that individuals living in areas with less societal protection are aware of this fact. However, the resultsalso indicate that general institutional trust and perception of risk on a municipal level seems to relate to eachother in such a way that municipal types (with similar sociodemographic characteristics and rescue serviceability) congregate around similar levels of perceived risk and trust. In turn, this study therefore indicates thatperceived risk and trust differs in different municipalities and that efficiency measurements not necessarilyencompass all these differences.

The argument concerning the link between household/individual, community characteristics and health services utilisation in extant literature is relatively broad. Using data adopted from the Namibia Household Income and Expenditure Survey (NHIES) conducted between April 2015 and March 2016, this thesis investigated the determinants of access to health care services in Namibia. The probit and multinomial logit regression analysis were used to estimate the effect of household/individual and community characteristics on access to health care services and health care provider choice in Namibia. The study finds that household income, gender, medical insurance, household place of resident and education status increase the probability of accessing health care services. It further reveals that household income, medical insurance, gender and education status significantly influences health care provider choice probability. Therefore, the study confirms that individual/household and community socioeconomic factors do affect health care utilization and significantly explain the choice between private, public and traditional/others health services in Namibia. The findings suggest that there is greater need to uplift the living conditions of people in rural areas, make health care provision accessible to all households in Namibia. Consequently, the study serves as an opportunity for policy makers to pay more attention to improving citizens’ level of education, income and access to medical coverage which are some of the key determinants of access to health care services in Namibia.

The argument concerning the link between household/individual, community characteristics and health services utilisation in extant literature is relatively broad. Using data adopted from the Namibia Household Income and Expenditure Survey (NHIES) conducted between April 2015 and March 2016, this thesis investigated the determinants of access to health care services in Namibia. The probit and multinomial logit regression analysis were used to estimate the effect of household/individual and community characteristics on access to health care services and health care provider choice in Namibia. The study finds that household income, gender, medical insurance, household place of resident and education status increase the probability of accessing health care services. It further reveals that household income, medical insurance, gender and education status significantly influences health care provider choice probability. Therefore, the study confirms that individual/household and community socioeconomic factors do affect health care utilization and significantly explain the choice between private, public and traditional/others health services in Namibia. The findings suggest that there is greater need to uplift the living conditions of people in rural areas, make health care provision accessible to all households in Namibia. Consequently, the study serves as an opportunity for policy makers to pay more attention to improving citizens’ level of education, income and access to medical coverage which are some of the key determinants of access to health care services in Namibia.

The argument concerning the link between household/individual, community characteristics and health services utilisation in extant literature is relatively broad. Using data adopted from the Namibia Household Income and Expenditure Survey (NHIES) conducted between April 2015 and March 2016, this thesis investigated the determinants of access to health care services in Namibia. The probit and multinomial logit regression analysis were used to estimate the effect of household/individual and community characteristics on access to health care services and health care provider choice in Namibia. The study finds that household income, gender, medical insurance, household place of resident and education status increase the probability of accessing health care services. It further reveals that household income, medical insurance, gender and education status significantly influences health care provider choice probability. Therefore, the study confirms that individual/household and community socioeconomic factors do affect health care utilization and significantly explain the choice between private, public and traditional/others health services in Namibia. The findings suggest that there is greater need to uplift the living conditions of people in rural areas, make health care provision accessible to all households in Namibia. Consequently, the study serves as an opportunity for policy makers to pay more attention to improving citizens’ level of education, income and access to medical coverage which are some of the key determinants of access to health care services in Namibia.

The argument concerning the link between household/individual, community characteristics and health services utilisation in extant literature is relatively broad. Using data adopted from the Namibia Household Income and Expenditure Survey (NHIES) conducted between April 2015 and March 2016, this thesis investigated the determinants of access to health care services in Namibia. The probit and multinomial logit regression analysis were used to estimate the effect of household/individual and community characteristics on access to health care services and health care provider choice in Namibia. The study finds that household income, gender, medical insurance, household place of resident and education status increase the probability of accessing health care services. It further reveals that household income, medical insurance, gender and education status significantly influences health care provider choice probability. Therefore, the study confirms that individual/household and community socioeconomic factors do affect health care utilization and significantly explain the choice between private, public and traditional/others health services in Namibia. The findings suggest that there is greater need to uplift the living conditions of people in rural areas, make health care provision accessible to all households in Namibia. Consequently, the study serves as an opportunity for policy makers to pay more attention to improving citizens’ level of education, income and access to medical coverage which are some of the key determinants of access to health care services in Namibia.

Agriculture worldwide faces the need to reduce chemical pesticides and produce healthier food. In Latin America, research on the organic food sector primarily focuses on supply. Consumption analysis is crucial for providing information about customers’ needs. This paper aims to analyze the Ecuadorian organic food sector, which is an interesting case for investigating the relationship between willingness to consume organic food and socioeconomic factors. To this end, 382 consumers were surveyed. The study applied a logit regression analysis to assess the role of socioeconomic factors in the willingness to consume organic food. Radar diagrams depict the percentage of respondents who checked a particular reason for choosing or refusing organic food. A cross-location comparison analysis was applied to identify differences between locations within the Central Ecuador region. Results reveal that Ecuadorian consumers’ awareness rate of organic food is only 53.5%. Regarding organic food’s price, 24% of consumers perceive it to be overly expensive. Based on strengthening the supervision of organic food production, various channels should be used to promote organic food consumption and facilitate the recognition of available organic food.

Rescue services are one of the most crucial actors in providing fire-related societal protection, particularly interms of response times. To achieve this, considerable funding and/or full-time organisations are required –something that is not always feasible and leads to differences in rescue service related protection in differentmunicipalities. In turn, the question is how such variations affect the perceived risk of being injured in a resi-dential fire and levels of general institutional trust in the municipality. By utilising a dataset on risk perceptionand trust, combined with data on the ability and structure of municipal rescue services, this study can show that amunicipal’s average perception of the risk of attaining a fire-related injury closely follows response times –indicating that individuals living in areas with less societal protection are aware of this fact. However, the resultsalso indicate that general institutional trust and perception of risk on a municipal level seems to relate to eachother in such a way that municipal types (with similar sociodemographic characteristics and rescue serviceability) congregate around similar levels of perceived risk and trust. In turn, this study therefore indicates thatperceived risk and trust differs in different municipalities and that efficiency measurements not necessarilyencompass all these differences.

Rescue services are one of the most crucial actors in providing fire-related societal protection, particularly interms of response times. To achieve this, considerable funding and/or full-time organisations are required –something that is not always feasible and leads to differences in rescue service related protection in differentmunicipalities. In turn, the question is how such variations affect the perceived risk of being injured in a resi-dential fire and levels of general institutional trust in the municipality. By utilising a dataset on risk perceptionand trust, combined with data on the ability and structure of municipal rescue services, this study can show that amunicipal’s average perception of the risk of attaining a fire-related injury closely follows response times –indicating that individuals living in areas with less societal protection are aware of this fact. However, the resultsalso indicate that general institutional trust and perception of risk on a municipal level seems to relate to eachother in such a way that municipal types (with similar sociodemographic characteristics and rescue serviceability) congregate around similar levels of perceived risk and trust. In turn, this study therefore indicates thatperceived risk and trust differs in different municipalities and that efficiency measurements not necessarilyencompass all these differences.

Rescue services are one of the most crucial actors in providing fire-related societal protection, particularly interms of response times. To achieve this, considerable funding and/or full-time organisations are required –something that is not always feasible and leads to differences in rescue service related protection in differentmunicipalities. In turn, the question is how such variations affect the perceived risk of being injured in a resi-dential fire and levels of general institutional trust in the municipality. By utilising a dataset on risk perceptionand trust, combined with data on the ability and structure of municipal rescue services, this study can show that amunicipal’s average perception of the risk of attaining a fire-related injury closely follows response times –indicating that individuals living in areas with less societal protection are aware of this fact. However, the resultsalso indicate that general institutional trust and perception of risk on a municipal level seems to relate to eachother in such a way that municipal types (with similar sociodemographic characteristics and rescue serviceability) congregate around similar levels of perceived risk and trust. In turn, this study therefore indicates thatperceived risk and trust differs in different municipalities and that efficiency measurements not necessarilyencompass all these differences.

Smallholder farming in sub-Saharan Africa keeps many rural households trapped in a cycle of poor productivity and low incomes. Two options to reach a decent income include intensification of production and expansion of farm areas per household. In this study, we explore what is a “viable farm size,” i.e., the farm area that is required to attain a “living income,” which sustains a nutritious diet, housing, education and health care. We used survey data from three contrasting sites in the East African highlands—Nyando (Kenya), Rakai (Uganda), and Lushoto (Tanzania) to explore viable farm sizes in six scenarios. Starting from the baseline cropping system, we built scenarios by incrementally including intensified and re-configured cropping systems, income from livestock and off-farm sources. In the most conservative scenario (baseline cropping patterns and yields, minus basic input costs), viable farm areas were 3.6, 2.4, and 2.1 ha, for Nyando, Rakai, and Lushoto, respectively—whereas current median farm areas were just 0.8, 1.8, and 0.8 ha. Given the skewed distribution of current farm areas, only few of the households in the study sites (0, 27, and 4% for Nyando, Rakai, and Lushoto, respectively) were able to attain a living income. Raising baseline yields to 50% of the water-limited yields strongly reduced the land area needed to achieve a viable farm size, and thereby enabled 92% of the households in Rakai and 70% of the households in Lushoto to attain a living income on their existing farm areas. By contrast, intensification of crop production alone was insufficient in Nyando, although including income from livestock enabled the majority of households (73%) to attain a living income with current farm areas. These scenarios show that increasing farm area and/or intensifying production is required for smallholder farmers to attain a living income from farming. Obviously such changes would require considerable capital and labor investment, as well as land reform and

The argument concerning the link between household/individual, community characteristics and health services utilisation in extant literature is relatively broad. Using data adopted from the Namibia Household Income and Expenditure Survey (NHIES) conducted between April 2015 and March 2016, this thesis investigated the determinants of access to health care services in Namibia. The probit and multinomial logit regression analysis were used to estimate the effect of household/individual and community characteristics on access to health care services and health care provider choice in Namibia. The study finds that household income, gender, medical insurance, household place of resident and education status increase the probability of accessing health care services. It further reveals that household income, medical insurance, gender and education status significantly influences health care provider choice probability. Therefore, the study confirms that individual/household and community socioeconomic factors do affect health care utilization and significantly explain the choice between private, public and traditional/others health services in Namibia. The findings suggest that there is greater need to uplift the living conditions of people in rural areas, make health care provision accessible to all households in Namibia. Consequently, the study serves as an opportunity for policy makers to pay more attention to improving citizens’ level of education, income and access to medical coverage which are some of the key determinants of access to health care services in Namibia.

The study "Gender gaps in access to the mortgage market in Ecuador" analyzes the access of women in conditions of poverty and moderate poverty to obtain a home loan in the formal financial system, the dimensioning and characterization of critical nodes and potentialities (supply and demand), qualifying the current demand and the type of housing for which credit is granted; as well as the identification and characterization of the main challenges faced by women in the granting, the level of exclusion, the credit behavior and the practices and conceptions of financial institutions (IFIs) that offer housing credit, from which the present conclusions and establish recommendations that contribute to narrowing the identified gender gaps, contributing to the implementation of projects and public housing policy in the country.