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Vivid structural colours in butterflies are caused by photonic nanostructures scattering light. Structural colours evolved for numerous biological signalling functions and have important technological applications. Optically, such structures are well understood, however insight into their development in vivo remains scarce. We show that actin is intimately involved in structural colour formation in butterfly wing scales. Using comparisons between iridescent (structurally coloured) and non-iridescent scales in adult and developing H. sara, we show that iridescent scales have more densely packed actin bundles leading to an increased density of reflective ridges. Super-resolution microscopy across three distantly related butterfly species reveals that actin is repeatedly re-arranged during scale development and crucially when the optical nanostructures are forming. Furthermore, actin perturbation experiments at these later developmental stages resulted in near total loss of structural colour in H. sara. Overall, this shows that actin plays a vital and direct templating role during structural colour formation in butterfly scales, providing ridge patterning mechanisms that are likely universal across lepidoptera.

Vivid structural colours in butterflies are caused by photonic nanostructures scattering light. Structural colours evolved for numerous biological signalling functions and have important technological applications. Optically, such structures are well understood, however insight into their development in vivo remains scarce. We show that actin is intimately involved in structural colour formation in butterfly wing scales. Using comparisons between iridescent (structurally coloured) and non-iridescent scales in adult and developing H. sara, we show that iridescent scales have more densely packed actin bundles leading to an increased density of reflective ridges. Super-resolution microscopy across three distantly related butterfly species reveals that actin is repeatedly re-arranged during scale development and crucially when the optical nanostructures are forming. Furthermore, actin perturbation experiments at these later developmental stages resulted in near total loss of structural colour in H. sara. Overall, this shows that actin plays a vital and direct templating role during structural colour formation in butterfly scales, providing ridge patterning mechanisms that are likely universal across lepidoptera.

Many biological materials exhibit a multiscale porosity with small, mostly nanoscale pores as well as large, macroscopic capillaries to simultaneously achieve optimized mass transport capabilities and lightweight structures with large inner surfaces. Realizing such a hierarchical porosity in artificial materials necessitates often sophisticated and expensive top-down processing that limits scalability. Here, an approach that combines self-organized porosity based on metal-assisted chemical etching (MACE) with photolithographically induced macroporosity for the synthesis of single-crystalline silicon with a bimodal pore-size distribution is presented, i.e., hexagonally arranged cylindrical macropores with 1 µm diameter separated by walls that are traversed by pores 60 nm across. The MACE process is mainly guided by a metal-catalyzed reduction–oxidation reaction, where silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) serve as the catalyst. In this process, the AgNPs act as self-propelled particles that are constantly removing silicon along their trajectories. High-resolution X-ray imaging and electron tomography reveal a resulting large open porosity and inner surface for potential applications in high-performance energy storage, harvesting and conversion or for on-chip sensorics and actuorics. Finally, the hierarchically porous silicon membranes can be transformed structure-conserving by thermal oxidation into hierarchically porous amorphous silica, a material that could be of particular interest for opto-fluidic and (bio-)photonic applications due to its multiscale artificial vascularization.

Full-field transmission X-ray microscopy (TXM) is a well established technique, available at various synchrotron beamlines around the world as well as by laboratory benchtop devices. One of the major TXM challenges, due to its nanometre-scale resolution, is the overall instrument stability during the acquisition of the series of tomographic projections. The ability to correct for vertical and horizontal distortions of each projection image during acquisition is necessary in order to achieve the effective 3D spatial resolution. The effectiveness of such an image alignment is also heavily influenced by the absorption properties and strong contrast of specific features in the scanned sample. Here it is shown that nanoporous gold (NPG) can be used as an ideal 3D test pattern for evaluating and optimizing the performance of a TXM instrument for hard X-rays at a synchrotron beamline. Unique features of NPG, such as hierarchical structures at multiple length scales and high absorbing capabilities, makes it an ideal choice for characterization, which involves a combination of a rapid-alignment algorithm applied on the acquired projections followed by the extraction of a set of both 2D- and 3D-descriptive image parameters. This protocol can be used for comparing the efficiency of TXM instruments at different synchrotron beamlines in the world or benchtop devices, based on a reference library of scanned NPG samples, containing information about the estimated horizontal and vertical alignment values, 2D qualitative parameters and quantitative 3D parameters. The possibility to tailor the ligament sizes of NPG to match the achievable resolution in combination with the high electron density of gold makes NPG an ideal 3D test pattern for evaluating the status and performance of a given synchrotron-based or benchtop-based TXM setup.

This data article describes the detailed parameters for synthesizing mullite inverse opal photonic crystals via Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD), as well as the detailed image analysis routine used to interpret the data obtained by the measurement of such photonic crystals, before and after the heat treatment, via Ptychographic X-ray Computed Tomography (PXCT). The data presented in this article are related to the research article by Furlan and co-authors entitled "Photonic materials for high-temperature applications: Synthesis and characterization by X-ray ptychographic tomography" (Furlan et al., 2018). The data include detailed information about the ALD super-cycle process to generate the ternary oxides inside a photonic crystal template, the raw data from supporting characterization techniques, as well as the full dataset obtained from PXCT. All the data herein described is publicly available in a Mendeley Data archive "Dataset of synthesis and characterization by PXCT of ALD-based mullite inverse opal photonic crystals" located at https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/zn49dsk7x6/1 for any academic, educational, or research purposes.

Photonic materials for high-temperature applications need to withstand temperatures usually higher than 1000 °C, whilst keeping their function. When exposed to high temperatures, such nanostructured materials are prone to detrimental morphological changes, however the structure evolution pathway of photonic materials and its correlation with the loss of material's function is not yet fully understood. Here we use high-resolution ptychographic X-ray computed tomography (PXCT) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to investigate the structural changes in mullite inverse opal photonic crystals produced by a very-low-temperature (95 °C) atomic layer deposition (ALD) super-cycle process. The 3D structural changes caused by the high-temperature exposure were quantified and associated with the distinct structural features of the ceramic photonic crystals. Other than observed in photonic crystals produced via powder colloidal suspensions or sol-gel infiltration, at high temperatures of 1400 °C we detected a mass transport direction from the nano pores to the shells. We relate these different structure evolution pathways to the presence of hollow vertexes in our ALD-based inverse opal photonic crystals. Although the periodically ordered structure is distorted after sintering, the mullite inverse opal photonic crystal presents a photonic stopgap even after heat treatment at 1400 °C for 100 h.

This data article describes the detailed parameters for synthesizing mullite inverse opal photonic crystals via Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD), as well as the detailed image analysis routine used to interpret the data obtained by the measurement of such photonic crystals, before and after the heat treatment, via Ptychographic X-ray Computed Tomography (PXCT). The data presented in this article are related to the research article by Furlan and co-authors entitled "Photonic materials for high-temperature applications: Synthesis and characterization by X-ray ptychographic tomography" (Furlan et al., 2018). The data include detailed information about the ALD super-cycle process to generate the ternary oxides inside a photonic crystal template, the raw data from supporting characterization techniques, as well as the full dataset obtained from PXCT. All the data herein described is publicly available in a Mendeley Data archive "Dataset of synthesis and characterization by PXCT of ALD-based mullite inverse opal photonic crystals" located at https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/zn49dsk7x6/1 for any academic, educational, or research purposes.

This data article describes the detailed parameters for synthesizing mullite inverse opal photonic crystals via Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD), as well as the detailed image analysis routine used to interpret the data obtained by the measurement of such photonic crystals, before and after the heat treatment, via Ptychographic X-ray Computed Tomography (PXCT). The data presented in this article are related to the research article by Furlan and co-authors entitled "Photonic materials for high-temperature applications: Synthesis and characterization by X-ray ptychographic tomography" (Furlan et al., 2018). The data include detailed information about the ALD super-cycle process to generate the ternary oxides inside a photonic crystal template, the raw data from supporting characterization techniques, as well as the full dataset obtained from PXCT. All the data herein described is publicly available in a Mendeley Data archive "Dataset of synthesis and characterization by PXCT of ALD-based mullite inverse opal photonic crystals" located at https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/zn49dsk7x6/1 for any academic, educational, or research purposes.

Photonic materials for high-temperature applications need to withstand temperatures usually higher than 1000 °C, whilst keeping their function. When exposed to high temperatures, such nanostructured materials are prone to detrimental morphological changes, however the structure evolution pathway of photonic materials and its correlation with the loss of material's function is not yet fully understood. Here we use high-resolution ptychographic X-ray computed tomography (PXCT) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to investigate the structural changes in mullite inverse opal photonic crystals produced by a very-low-temperature (95 °C) atomic layer deposition (ALD) super-cycle process. The 3D structural changes caused by the high-temperature exposure were quantified and associated with the distinct structural features of the ceramic photonic crystals. Other than observed in photonic crystals produced via powder colloidal suspensions or sol-gel infiltration, at high temperatures of 1400 °C we detected a mass transport direction from the nano pores to the shells. We relate these different structure evolution pathways to the presence of hollow vertexes in our ALD-based inverse opal photonic crystals. Although the periodically ordered structure is distorted after sintering, the mullite inverse opal photonic crystal presents a photonic stopgap even after heat treatment at 1400 °C for 100 h.