Search

This thesis addresses destitution in the United Kingdom from a human rights-based perspective. In order to achieve this, part one of my thesis creates a human rights-based definition of destitution. In part two, this definition is applied to the context of the United Kingdom. Destitution has not yet been explicitly defined in the language of human rights and, in fact, remains an unsettled concept beyond the sphere of human rights. The originality of this work therefore rests on the fact that it is the first work to explicitly define destitution using a human rights framework. The contribution of this thesis is two-fold. Firstly, through framing the destitution experience in terms of tangible rights the aim is to further effective policy and law to tackle, and mobilise against, destitution. Secondly, the prevention and alleviation of destitution whilst being of value in itself, can also be a stimulus for the implementation of fundamental social and economic rights at the domestic level. This thesis argues that a rights-based definition of destitution has two elements. The component rights and the destitution threshold. This author’s human rights-based definition of destitution is: ‘If any one, or more, of an individual’s component rights are not realised to the destitution threshold then an individual is destitute.’ From this starting point the thesis begins and works towards, in part one, defining the component rights and the destitution threshold. Having defined these concepts and enunciated my human rights-based definition of destitution in part one, my definition is applied to the context of the United Kingdom in part two. Part two will examine the context of – and I argue cause of increasing - destitution in the UK: austerity. Following this I determine what it means to be destitute under my definition in the UK before offering human rights-based solutions and recommendations to this ever-growing problem.

This thesis addresses destitution in the United Kingdom from a human rights-based perspective. In order to achieve this, part one of my thesis creates a human rights-based definition of destitution. In part two, this definition is applied to the context of the United Kingdom. Destitution has not yet been explicitly defined in the language of human rights and, in fact, remains an unsettled concept beyond the sphere of human rights. The originality of this work therefore rests on the fact that it is the first work to explicitly define destitution using a human rights framework. The contribution of this thesis is two-fold. Firstly, through framing the destitution experience in terms of tangible rights the aim is to further effective policy and law to tackle, and mobilise against, destitution. Secondly, the prevention and alleviation of destitution whilst being of value in itself, can also be a stimulus for the implementation of fundamental social and economic rights at the domestic level. This thesis argues that a rights-based definition of destitution has two elements. The component rights and the destitution threshold. This author’s human rights-based definition of destitution is: ‘If any one, or more, of an individual’s component rights are not realised to the destitution threshold then an individual is destitute.’ From this starting point the thesis begins and works towards, in part one, defining the component rights and the destitution threshold. Having defined these concepts and enunciated my human rights-based definition of destitution in part one, my definition is applied to the context of the United Kingdom in part two. Part two will examine the context of – and I argue cause of increasing - destitution in the UK: austerity. Following this I determine what it means to be destitute under my definition in the UK before offering human rights-based solutions and recommendations to this ever-growing problem.

This article will examine whether UK social security policies, since 2008, could potentially constitute one or more crimes against humanity ('CAH'). This examination will focus on the likely approach of the International Criminal Court ('ICC'), based upon an analysis of existing international criminal jurisprudence, including the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ('ICTY') and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ('ICTR'). After defining what constitutes a CAH, the extent to which social security policy in the UK may be attacked for the purpose of constituting a CAH will be explored. Following this, the extent to which the pre- requisite mental element is satisfied will be analysed. It will ultimately be concluded that austerity-driven social security policy in the UK can amount to a CAH of other inhumane acts under Article 7(1)(k) of the Rome Statute.

This article will examine whether UK social security policies, since 2008, could potentially constitute one or more crimes against humanity ('CAH'). This examination will focus on the likely approach of the International Criminal Court ('ICC'), based upon an analysis of existing international criminal jurisprudence, including the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ('ICTY') and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ('ICTR'). After defining what constitutes a CAH, the extent to which social security policy in the UK may be attacked for the purpose of constituting a CAH will be explored. Following this, the extent to which the pre- requisite mental element is satisfied will be analysed. It will ultimately be concluded that austerity-driven social security policy in the UK can amount to a CAH of other inhumane acts under Article 7(1)(k) of the Rome Statute.

The Southern Operations (CML 8) is situated within the Curnamona Province of Western New South Wales, along the southern extent of the Giant Broken Hill Pb-Zn-Ag orebody. Previous estimates of the near surface reserves of both 2 Lens and B Lode between sections 10 – 30 have been calculated to consist of 705 kT of ore at 81 kT combined Pb/Zn. However the metallurgical recovery (floatability) of these reserves may be substantially lower than previously estimated due to the oxidation of hypogene ore following climatic adjustment (prevailing arid regime) during the last glacial maximum. Therefore whilst the identification of a secondary zone within the central mining field has been substantially documented by previous academics, with mineral assemblages correlating to a two-phase oxidation cycle following the decline in the regions palaeo-water table (illuvial zone), the irregularity of the orebody‟s geometry, mineralogy (internal stratification) and structural geology indicates that a simple paragenetic model cannot be applied over the entire mine sequence. As a result field-based observations, whole rock geochemistry and petrographic analysis were used to describe the mineralogical/elemental nature of the secondary zone within the southern mining district, relative to observations made by earlier academics within the central mining leases. These investigations further support the notion of two-phase oxidation cycle with samples within both the gossanous and complex carbonate zone of 2 Lens and B Lode exhibiting a diversification of secondary minerals within several morphological forms, relative to the overprinting of the palaeo-supergene blanket following redissolution. However in comparison with the central mining district the southern extent of 2 Lens and B Lode notably displays a less extensive secondary zone, with only an estimated 1681.53 t (2.076% of the reserve) of pre-existing hypogene ore having undergone oxidation to form secondary minerals (i.e. cerussite a

The Southern Operations (CML 8) is situated within the Curnamona Province of Western New South Wales, along the southern extent of the Giant Broken Hill Pb-Zn-Ag orebody. Previous estimates of the near surface reserves of both 2 Lens and B Lode between sections 10 – 30 have been calculated to consist of 705 kT of ore at 81 kT combined Pb/Zn. However the metallurgical recovery (floatability) of these reserves may be substantially lower than previously estimated due to the oxidation of hypogene ore following climatic adjustment (prevailing arid regime) during the last glacial maximum. Therefore whilst the identification of a secondary zone within the central mining field has been substantially documented by previous academics, with mineral assemblages correlating to a two-phase oxidation cycle following the decline in the regions palaeo-water table (illuvial zone), the irregularity of the orebody‟s geometry, mineralogy (internal stratification) and structural geology indicates that a simple paragenetic model cannot be applied over the entire mine sequence. As a result field-based observations, whole rock geochemistry and petrographic analysis were used to describe the mineralogical/elemental nature of the secondary zone within the southern mining district, relative to observations made by earlier academics within the central mining leases. These investigations further support the notion of two-phase oxidation cycle with samples within both the gossanous and complex carbonate zone of 2 Lens and B Lode exhibiting a diversification of secondary minerals within several morphological forms, relative to the overprinting of the palaeo-supergene blanket following redissolution. However in comparison with the central mining district the southern extent of 2 Lens and B Lode notably displays a less extensive secondary zone, with only an estimated 1681.53 t (2.076% of the reserve) of pre-existing hypogene ore having undergone oxidation to form secondary minerals (i.e. cerussite a

The Southern Operations (CML 8) is situated within the Curnamona Province of Western New South Wales, along the southern extent of the Giant Broken Hill Pb-Zn-Ag orebody. Previous estimates of the near surface reserves of both 2 Lens and B Lode between sections 10 – 30 have been calculated to consist of 705 kT of ore at 81 kT combined Pb/Zn. However the metallurgical recovery (floatability) of these reserves may be substantially lower than previously estimated due to the oxidation of hypogene ore following climatic adjustment (prevailing arid regime) during the last glacial maximum. Therefore whilst the identification of a secondary zone within the central mining field has been substantially documented by previous academics, with mineral assemblages correlating to a two-phase oxidation cycle following the decline in the regions palaeo-water table (illuvial zone), the irregularity of the orebody‟s geometry, mineralogy (internal stratification) and structural geology indicates that a simple paragenetic model cannot be applied over the entire mine sequence. As a result field-based observations, whole rock geochemistry and petrographic analysis were used to describe the mineralogical/elemental nature of the secondary zone within the southern mining district, relative to observations made by earlier academics within the central mining leases. These investigations further support the notion of two-phase oxidation cycle with samples within both the gossanous and complex carbonate zone of 2 Lens and B Lode exhibiting a diversification of secondary minerals within several morphological forms, relative to the overprinting of the palaeo-supergene blanket following redissolution. However in comparison with the central mining district the southern extent of 2 Lens and B Lode notably displays a less extensive secondary zone, with only an estimated 1681.53 t (2.076% of the reserve) of pre-existing hypogene ore having undergone oxidation to form secondary minerals (i.e. cerussite a

The Southern Operations (CML 8) is situated within the Curnamona Province of Western New South Wales, along the southern extent of the Giant Broken Hill Pb-Zn-Ag orebody. Previous estimates of the near surface reserves of both 2 Lens and B Lode between sections 10 – 30 have been calculated to consist of 705 kT of ore at 81 kT combined Pb/Zn. However the metallurgical recovery (floatability) of these reserves may be substantially lower than previously estimated due to the oxidation of hypogene ore following climatic adjustment (prevailing arid regime) during the last glacial maximum. Therefore whilst the identification of a secondary zone within the central mining field has been substantially documented by previous academics, with mineral assemblages correlating to a two-phase oxidation cycle following the decline in the regions palaeo-water table (illuvial zone), the irregularity of the orebody‟s geometry, mineralogy (internal stratification) and structural geology indicates that a simple paragenetic model cannot be applied over the entire mine sequence. As a result field-based observations, whole rock geochemistry and petrographic analysis were used to describe the mineralogical/elemental nature of the secondary zone within the southern mining district, relative to observations made by earlier academics within the central mining leases. These investigations further support the notion of two-phase oxidation cycle with samples within both the gossanous and complex carbonate zone of 2 Lens and B Lode exhibiting a diversification of secondary minerals within several morphological forms, relative to the overprinting of the palaeo-supergene blanket following redissolution. However in comparison with the central mining district the southern extent of 2 Lens and B Lode notably displays a less extensive secondary zone, with only an estimated 1681.53 t (2.076% of the reserve) of pre-existing hypogene ore having undergone oxidation to form secondary minerals (i.e. cerussite a

The Southern Operations (CML 8) is situated within the Curnamona Province of Western New South Wales, along the southern extent of the Giant Broken Hill Pb-Zn-Ag orebody. Previous estimates of the near surface reserves of both 2 Lens and B Lode between sections 10 – 30 have been calculated to consist of 705 kT of ore at 81 kT combined Pb/Zn. However the metallurgical recovery (floatability) of these reserves may be substantially lower than previously estimated due to the oxidation of hypogene ore following climatic adjustment (prevailing arid regime) during the last glacial maximum. Therefore whilst the identification of a secondary zone within the central mining field has been substantially documented by previous academics, with mineral assemblages correlating to a two-phase oxidation cycle following the decline in the regions palaeo-water table (illuvial zone), the irregularity of the orebody‟s geometry, mineralogy (internal stratification) and structural geology indicates that a simple paragenetic model cannot be applied over the entire mine sequence. As a result field-based observations, whole rock geochemistry and petrographic analysis were used to describe the mineralogical/elemental nature of the secondary zone within the southern mining district, relative to observations made by earlier academics within the central mining leases. These investigations further support the notion of two-phase oxidation cycle with samples within both the gossanous and complex carbonate zone of 2 Lens and B Lode exhibiting a diversification of secondary minerals within several morphological forms, relative to the overprinting of the palaeo-supergene blanket following redissolution. However in comparison with the central mining district the southern extent of 2 Lens and B Lode notably displays a less extensive secondary zone, with only an estimated 1681.53 t (2.076% of the reserve) of pre-existing hypogene ore having undergone oxidation to form secondary minerals (i.e. cerussite a

The Southern Operations (CML 8) is situated within the Curnamona Province of Western New South Wales, along the southern extent of the Giant Broken Hill Pb-Zn-Ag orebody. Previous estimates of the near surface reserves of both 2 Lens and B Lode between sections 10 – 30 have been calculated to consist of 705 kT of ore at 81 kT combined Pb/Zn. However the metallurgical recovery (floatability) of these reserves may be substantially lower than previously estimated due to the oxidation of hypogene ore following climatic adjustment (prevailing arid regime) during the last glacial maximum. Therefore whilst the identification of a secondary zone within the central mining field has been substantially documented by previous academics, with mineral assemblages correlating to a two-phase oxidation cycle following the decline in the regions palaeo-water table (illuvial zone), the irregularity of the orebody‟s geometry, mineralogy (internal stratification) and structural geology indicates that a simple paragenetic model cannot be applied over the entire mine sequence. As a result field-based observations, whole rock geochemistry and petrographic analysis were used to describe the mineralogical/elemental nature of the secondary zone within the southern mining district, relative to observations made by earlier academics within the central mining leases. These investigations further support the notion of two-phase oxidation cycle with samples within both the gossanous and complex carbonate zone of 2 Lens and B Lode exhibiting a diversification of secondary minerals within several morphological forms, relative to the overprinting of the palaeo-supergene blanket following redissolution. However in comparison with the central mining district the southern extent of 2 Lens and B Lode notably displays a less extensive secondary zone, with only an estimated 1681.53 t (2.076% of the reserve) of pre-existing hypogene ore having undergone oxidation to form secondary minerals (i.e. cerussite a

The Southern Operations (CML 8) is situated within the Curnamona Province of Western New South Wales, along the southern extent of the Giant Broken Hill Pb-Zn-Ag orebody. Previous estimates of the near surface reserves of both 2 Lens and B Lode between sections 10 – 30 have been calculated to consist of 705 kT of ore at 81 kT combined Pb/Zn. However the metallurgical recovery (floatability) of these reserves may be substantially lower than previously estimated due to the oxidation of hypogene ore following climatic adjustment (prevailing arid regime) during the last glacial maximum. Therefore whilst the identification of a secondary zone within the central mining field has been substantially documented by previous academics, with mineral assemblages correlating to a two-phase oxidation cycle following the decline in the regions palaeo-water table (illuvial zone), the irregularity of the orebody‟s geometry, mineralogy (internal stratification) and structural geology indicates that a simple paragenetic model cannot be applied over the entire mine sequence. As a result field-based observations, whole rock geochemistry and petrographic analysis were used to describe the mineralogical/elemental nature of the secondary zone within the southern mining district, relative to observations made by earlier academics within the central mining leases. These investigations further support the notion of two-phase oxidation cycle with samples within both the gossanous and complex carbonate zone of 2 Lens and B Lode exhibiting a diversification of secondary minerals within several morphological forms, relative to the overprinting of the palaeo-supergene blanket following redissolution. However in comparison with the central mining district the southern extent of 2 Lens and B Lode notably displays a less extensive secondary zone, with only an estimated 1681.53 t (2.076% of the reserve) of pre-existing hypogene ore having undergone oxidation to form secondary minerals (i.e. cerussite a

The Southern Operations (CML 8) is situated within the Curnamona Province of Western New South Wales, along the southern extent of the Giant Broken Hill Pb-Zn-Ag orebody. Previous estimates of the near surface reserves of both 2 Lens and B Lode between sections 10 – 30 have been calculated to consist of 705 kT of ore at 81 kT combined Pb/Zn. However the metallurgical recovery (floatability) of these reserves may be substantially lower than previously estimated due to the oxidation of hypogene ore following climatic adjustment (prevailing arid regime) during the last glacial maximum. Therefore whilst the identification of a secondary zone within the central mining field has been substantially documented by previous academics, with mineral assemblages correlating to a two-phase oxidation cycle following the decline in the regions palaeo-water table (illuvial zone), the irregularity of the orebody‟s geometry, mineralogy (internal stratification) and structural geology indicates that a simple paragenetic model cannot be applied over the entire mine sequence. As a result field-based observations, whole rock geochemistry and petrographic analysis were used to describe the mineralogical/elemental nature of the secondary zone within the southern mining district, relative to observations made by earlier academics within the central mining leases. These investigations further support the notion of two-phase oxidation cycle with samples within both the gossanous and complex carbonate zone of 2 Lens and B Lode exhibiting a diversification of secondary minerals within several morphological forms, relative to the overprinting of the palaeo-supergene blanket following redissolution. However in comparison with the central mining district the southern extent of 2 Lens and B Lode notably displays a less extensive secondary zone, with only an estimated 1681.53 t (2.076% of the reserve) of pre-existing hypogene ore having undergone oxidation to form secondary minerals (i.e. cerussite a

The Southern Operations (CML 8) is situated within the Curnamona Province of Western New South Wales, along the southern extent of the Giant Broken Hill Pb-Zn-Ag orebody. Previous estimates of the near surface reserves of both 2 Lens and B Lode between sections 10 – 30 have been calculated to consist of 705 kT of ore at 81 kT combined Pb/Zn. However the metallurgical recovery (floatability) of these reserves may be substantially lower than previously estimated due to the oxidation of hypogene ore following climatic adjustment (prevailing arid regime) during the last glacial maximum. Therefore whilst the identification of a secondary zone within the central mining field has been substantially documented by previous academics, with mineral assemblages correlating to a two-phase oxidation cycle following the decline in the regions palaeo-water table (illuvial zone), the irregularity of the orebody‟s geometry, mineralogy (internal stratification) and structural geology indicates that a simple paragenetic model cannot be applied over the entire mine sequence. As a result field-based observations, whole rock geochemistry and petrographic analysis were used to describe the mineralogical/elemental nature of the secondary zone within the southern mining district, relative to observations made by earlier academics within the central mining leases. These investigations further support the notion of two-phase oxidation cycle with samples within both the gossanous and complex carbonate zone of 2 Lens and B Lode exhibiting a diversification of secondary minerals within several morphological forms, relative to the overprinting of the palaeo-supergene blanket following redissolution. However in comparison with the central mining district the southern extent of 2 Lens and B Lode notably displays a less extensive secondary zone, with only an estimated 1681.53 t (2.076% of the reserve) of pre-existing hypogene ore having undergone oxidation to form secondary minerals (i.e. cerussite a

The Southern Operations (CML 8) is situated within the Curnamona Province of Western New South Wales, along the southern extent of the Giant Broken Hill Pb-Zn-Ag orebody. Previous estimates of the near surface reserves of both 2 Lens and B Lode between sections 10 – 30 have been calculated to consist of 705 kT of ore at 81 kT combined Pb/Zn. However the metallurgical recovery (floatability) of these reserves may be substantially lower than previously estimated due to the oxidation of hypogene ore following climatic adjustment (prevailing arid regime) during the last glacial maximum. Therefore whilst the identification of a secondary zone within the central mining field has been substantially documented by previous academics, with mineral assemblages correlating to a two-phase oxidation cycle following the decline in the regions palaeo-water table (illuvial zone), the irregularity of the orebody‟s geometry, mineralogy (internal stratification) and structural geology indicates that a simple paragenetic model cannot be applied over the entire mine sequence. As a result field-based observations, whole rock geochemistry and petrographic analysis were used to describe the mineralogical/elemental nature of the secondary zone within the southern mining district, relative to observations made by earlier academics within the central mining leases. These investigations further support the notion of two-phase oxidation cycle with samples within both the gossanous and complex carbonate zone of 2 Lens and B Lode exhibiting a diversification of secondary minerals within several morphological forms, relative to the overprinting of the palaeo-supergene blanket following redissolution. However in comparison with the central mining district the southern extent of 2 Lens and B Lode notably displays a less extensive secondary zone, with only an estimated 1681.53 t (2.076% of the reserve) of pre-existing hypogene ore having undergone oxidation to form secondary minerals (i.e. cerussite a