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Richard Peto’s paradox, first described in 1975 from an epidemiological perspective, established an inverse correlation between the probability of developing cancer in multicellular organisms and the number of cells. Larger animals exhibit fewer tumors compared to smaller ones, though exceptions exist. Mice are more susceptible to cancer than humans, while elephants and whales demonstrate significantly lower cancer prevalence rates than humans. How nature and evolution have addressed the issue of cancer in the animal kingdom remains largely unexplored. In the field of medicine, much attention has been devoted to cancer-predisposing genes, as they offer avenues for intervention, including blocking, downregulating, early diagnosis, and targeted treatment. Predisposing genes also tend to manifest clinically earlier and more aggressively, making them easier to identify. However, despite significant strides in modern medicine, the role of protective genes lags behind. Identifying genes with a mild predisposing effect poses a significant challenge. Consequently, comprehending the protective function conferred by genes becomes even more elusive, and their very existence is subject to questioning. While the role of variable expressivity and penetrance defects of the same variant in a family is well-documented for many hereditary cancer syndromes, attempts to delineate the function of protective/modifier alleles have been restricted to a few instances. In this review, we endeavor to elucidate the role of protective genes observed in the animal kingdom, within certain genetic syndromes that appear to act as cancer-resistant/repressor alleles. Additionally, we explore the role of protective alleles in conditions predisposing to cancer. The ultimate goal is to discern why individuals, like Winston Churchill, managed to live up to 91 years of age, despite engaging in minimal physical activity, consuming large quantities of alcohol daily, and not abstaining from smoking.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate the distress, behavior and developmental health problems of children living in alternative care. METHODS: The data were collected through a questionnaire between May and November 2017. The communities involved in this study were 169, from all Italian Regions, and hosted 1621 children. RESULTS: Children living in alternative care can manifest their distress in multiple ways. The respondents report the presence of aggressive behavior in about 27% of children, especially verbal aggression, followed by vandalism and physical aggression. CONCLUSIONS: Children in alternative care placements may be particularly vulnerable at risk for mental and developmental health problems, which may impact long-term outcome if untreated or ineffectively treated.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate the physical and mental condition of children living in a foster care, highlighting the standpoint of social educators working in these settings. METHODS: The data were collected between September and October 2016. The residential child care involved in this study hosted 100 children. All the interviews were registered and transcribed. To analyze the data we used Grounded Theory (GT) methodology. RESULTS: The interviewed underline some aggressive (anger, threats, bullying) and passive (depression, social isolation) children behavior. Aggressive behaviors are more frequent than passive behaviors and the most common children reaction is anger. The most common problem has a psychological aspect, such as excessive responsibility due to the crucial nature of the decisions these professionals have to take and the probability of making mistakes with serious consequences. CONCLUSIONS: Children living in residential child care, like foster care, have still serious deficiencies in their overall health and wellbeing, particularly in emotional health and behavior.