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Capsule: Tracked Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus breeding in Spain winter either in the southern parts of the Iberian Peninsula or in Morocco, although migration timing and distances did not differ between birds using different wintering regions. Aims: To study, for the first time, the migratory patterns of Hen Harriers breeding in Spain. Methods: Eight breeding adult Hen Harriers were tagged in Spain with GPS/GSM transmitters between 2019 and 2022 to study autumn and spring migration between breeding areas in central or northern Spain, and wintering quarters in southern Spain and Morocco. Results: Males and females did not differ significantly in their patterns of migration (dates for start and end of migration, duration, daily distance, and total distance) in either migratory period. Individuals started the autumn migration between July and January, with the peak migration in mid-October. Spring migration took place from February to April and peaked in mid-March. Mean (± sd) distances travelled were: daily distance 168.99 ± 80.10 km/day and total distance 995.07 ± 402.90 km in autumn, and 141.74 ± 41.41 km/day and 1035.26 ± 593.51 km in spring. Two types of migration patterns were found: intra-peninsular migration and migration to Morocco. Migration dates and distances did not differ significantly between individuals with intra-peninsular migration strategies and those migrating to Morocco. Conclusion: These results are the first to describe the migratory behaviour of Spanish breeding Hen Harriers using satellite telemetry. Knowledge of migratory routes and behaviour are important for planning the conservation of species

Migratory connectivity describes the linkage between breeding and non-breeding sites, having major ecological implications in birds: one season influence the success of an individual or a population in the following season. Most studies on migratory connectivity have used large-scale approaches, often considering regional populations, but fine-scale studies are also necessary to understand colony connectivity. The lesser kestrel Falco naumanni, an insectivorous migratory raptor which form colonies during the breeding period, was considered to have strong connectivity based on regional populations. However, no small scale studies on migratory connectivity have been conducted. Therefore, we GPS-tracked 40 adult lesser kestrels from 15 different Spanish breeding colonies, estimating the overlap index between home ranges and the distance between their centroids. It was found that lesser kestrels from the same breeding colony placed their non-breeding areas at 347 ± 281 km (mean ± standard deviation) away from each other (range = 23-990), and their home ranges overlapped by 38.4 ± 23.6%. No differences between intra-colony and inter-colony metrics were found, which suggests that lesser kestrels from the same breeding cluster do not overwinter together, but they spread out and mixed independently of the colony belonging throughout the non-breeding range of the species. Ultimately, this study highlights the importance of performing connectivity studies using fine-scale approaches.

Many aspects of the spatial ecology of the cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) are still unknown. The Iberian population is thought to be predominantly sedentary, but the spatial patterns of young individuals have been barely studied. The aim of this study was to provide a comprehensive understanding of the juvenile dispersal of the Iberian cinereous vultures. To this end, we GPS-tagged 41 Cinereous Vultures and tracked their movements during the period 2002–2021, from the end of parental care to the beginning of reproductive age. We examined the influence of age, season and sex on movement metrics (accumulated distances, distances to nest and home range sizes). During the juvenile dispersal period, cinereous vultures travelled over large areas of the Iberian Peninsula and southern Europe. Despite the high individual variability, we found a negative age-related trend in all movement metrics: the younger individuals (<1 year old) often performed farther movements and occupied larger areas, stabilising their movements during immature (1–3 years) and subadult (4 years) phases. On the other hand, season influenced the accumulated distance within all age classes; warm months positively influenced flight effort. Finally, females flew farther and occupied larger areas than males, consistently within age classes. This study did not take into account many factors which may explain part of the high variability observed: landscape, supplementary feeding sites, dumps, colony size, interspecific interactions, stochastic events, etc. Further studies are needed to investigate the influence of these factors on the dispersal of the species in more detail, but this work provides the first approach to the juvenile dispersal of the cinereous vulture in Iberia.

Although the western Mediterranean population of the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus is considered to be mainly resident, a small but increasing number of individuals migrate between western Europe and western Sahel. We used GPS tracking on two juvenile vultures from Spain to reveal their migration routes and their wintering areas in Senegal.

Large scavengers are strongly dependent on environmental conditions and carrion distribution and abundance, so season and breeding-related factors may influence the spatial ecology of species such as the Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus), the largest European raptor. Iberia holds one of the biggest populations worldwide, but some aspects of the spatial ecology of the species in this region remain unknown. In this study, 17 adult Cinereous Vultures were GPS-tracked in order to study their spatial ecology during the adult phase. The average monthly home ranges (95% Kernel Density Estimation, KDE) and core areas (50% KDE) were 6543 ± 19,935 km2 and 1174 ± 4004 km2, respectively. The average monthly home range fidelity ranged between 50 and 73%. Differences in movement-related variables between the seasonal periods (incubation, chick-rearing and non-breeding) were found. During the chick-rearing period, the monthly accumulated distance was higher than during the other periods: 3316 ± 1108 (chick-rearing) vs. 1621 ± 622 (incubation) vs. 1726 ± 1159 km per month (non-breeding). Additionally, large home range sizes were more frequent during the chick-rearing period. There are two likely causes for these seasonal differences. Firstly, chick-rearing entails a higher energetic expenditure by the parental individuals in foraging activities, so larger movements and foraging areas are expected during this period. Secondly, the flight is favoured during spring and summer due to environmental conditions. Matching chick-rearing and warm months is a great evolutionary advantage for soaring-gliding raptors, as it allows them to cover larger areas with low energy expenditure. Furthermore, six individuals tagged as nestlings highlights the philopatric behaviour of the species: vultures settle their breeding areas 54 ± 51 km from their natal nest (range = 9–138 km).

The juvenile dispersal of raptors is a crucial stage that stretches from parental independence to the establishment of the first breeding area. Between 2012 and 2020, 44 juvenile red kites Milvus milvus from the Spanish breeding population were tagged using GPS telemetry to study their dispersal. Juveniles left the parental breeding area at the end of their first summer and performed wandering movements throughout the Iberian Peninsula, returning to the parental breeding area the following year, repeating the same pattern until they settled in their first breeding area. We analyzed the mean distance from the nest, the maximum reached distances, and the travelled distances (daily and hourly) during the first two years of dispersal and compared them. Despite the high individual variability, variables describing the dispersal movements of juveniles showed a decreasing trend during the second dispersal year: 80 % of individuals reached a shorter maximum distance in the second year, 70% decreased their mean distance to the nest, 65% decreased their hourly travelled distances, and 50% decreased their daily travelled distances. On the other hand, the Red Kites usually combined wandering movements with establishment of temporary settlement areas (TSA). The average duration of settlement in the TSAs was 75 ± 40 days (up to 182 days) and were located at 182 ± 168 km from the nest. In those areas, juveniles used 781.0 ± 1895.0 km 2 (KDE 95%). Some of the TSAs were used by several individuals, which suggests that these areas might be good targets for conservation in future management plans.

To develop effective conservation strategies for migratory birds, it is essential to understand the ecology of a species at each biological phase, including its wintering (or non-breeding) season. For the red kite (Milvus milvus), an endangered raptor from the Western Palearctic, its wintering ecology is little known. We tagged 44 red kites using GPS/satellite transmitters to study their non-breeding seasons in Spain. Two spatial strategies were recorded: 34 individuals (77%) spent all their wintering periods in only one area, whilst the remaining individuals (23%) moved between two main areas at least once. This strategy, however, was not consistent over the years. In the latter case, the distance between wintering areas was 311.6 ± 134.7 km, and individuals usually spent equally long periods in each area (96 ± 35 days). No effects of age or sex were found on these area shifts, so they may have been driven by food or habitat resource availability. We also found high interindividual variability in home range sizes. The home ranges of adults were two- to three-times smaller than those of immatures, probably due to a better knowledge of the territory.

Studies focusing on the spatial ecology of the Red Kite (Milvus milvus) during the breeding season are scarce, despite this season having major importance in its conservation. Spain has one of the largest breeding populations of this species, but it is very threatened in this country. Here, 28 Red Kites were tagged in Spain with GPS satellite transmitters to study the movements of breeding adults during the breeding season (March-June), evaluating the differences according to sex, and investigating the habitat selection. The area used by females was smaller than the used by males (95% KDE = 4.48 vs. 3.30 km2). Females also traveled less distance per hour and remained closer to the nest. Thus, females had a higher frequency of locations at distances <250 m from the nest, while males had a higher frequency at distances >1 km. Distances recorded at >5 km were scarce for both sexes, and maximum distances reached were usually (61% of seasons) less than 15 km. Both sexes increased the frequency of movements between 1–3 km during the central hours of the day. Red Kites mainly used areas occupied by non-irrigated arable land, forests, scrubs, and herbaceous vegetation. The selection of certain types of crops highlights the importance of the agroforestry landscape for the conservation of the species. On the other hand, we documented for the first time how part of the Spanish breeding population is a short-distance migrant within the Iberian Peninsula while other part of the population makes post-breeding movements during summer.

It was assumed that the Spanish breeding population of the red kite (Milvus milvus) was resident, hence their movements were restricted to their breeding area for their entire lifecycle. However, recent observations indicated that the post-reproductive strategies of the red kite in Spain are more diverse. We tagged 47 breeding adult red kites in Spain and analyzed their movements during the post-reproductive period (July–February). We found three strategies in the population: migration (10%), sedentarism (70%), and sedentarism with post-reproductive movements (20%), based on seasonality and other movement parameters. Sedentarism with post-reproductive movements was a very variable strategy that involved all-direction wandering movements far away from the nest (up to 589 km) after breeding season, and then a returned journey toward the starting point in time for the next breeding season. Our results also suggest that sedentarism with post-reproductive movements is much more common in females than males. Furthermore, 17% of the individuals changed their strategy over the years. This study highlights the great individual variability and plasticity of the red kite and allows for a better understanding of spatial ecology in opportunistic raptors.

The juvenile dispersal of raptors is a crucial stage that stretches from parental independence to the establishment of the first breeding area. Between 2012 and 2020, 44 juvenile red kites Milvus milvus from the Spanish breeding population were tagged using GPS telemetry to study their dispersal. Juveniles left the parental breeding area at the end of their first summer and performed wandering movements throughout the Iberian Peninsula, returning to the parental breeding area the following year, repeating the same pattern until they settled in their first breeding area. We analyzed the mean distance from the nest, the maximum reached distances, and the travelled distances (daily and hourly) during the first two years of dispersal and compared them. Despite the high individual variability, variables describing the dispersal movements of juveniles showed a decreasing trend during the second dispersal year: 80 % of individuals reached a shorter maximum distance in the second year, 70% decreased their mean distance to the nest, 65% decreased their hourly travelled distances, and 50% decreased their daily travelled distances. On the other hand, the Red Kites usually combined wandering movements with establishment of temporary settlement areas (TSA). The average duration of settlement in the TSAs was 75 ± 40 days (up to 182 days) and were located at 182 ± 168 km from the nest. In those areas, juveniles used 781.0 ± 1895.0 km 2 (KDE 95%). Some of the TSAs were used by several individuals, which suggests that these areas might be good targets for conservation in future management plans.

To develop effective conservation strategies for migratory birds, it is essential to understand the ecology of a species at each biological phase, including its wintering (or non-breeding) season. For the red kite (Milvus milvus), an endangered raptor from the Western Palearctic, its wintering ecology is little known. We tagged 44 red kites using GPS/satellite transmitters to study their non-breeding seasons in Spain. Two spatial strategies were recorded: 34 individuals (77%) spent all their wintering periods in only one area, whilst the remaining individuals (23%) moved between two main areas at least once. This strategy, however, was not consistent over the years. In the latter case, the distance between wintering areas was 311.6 ± 134.7 km, and individuals usually spent equally long periods in each area (96 ± 35 days). No effects of age or sex were found on these area shifts, so they may have been driven by food or habitat resource availability. We also found high interindividual variability in home range sizes. The home ranges of adults were two- to three-times smaller than those of immatures, probably due to a better knowledge of the territory.

Apart from being the main cause of biodiversity loss, humans are also essential for sustainability and biological conservation. Regulations for the conservation of threatened species are key to respond to this challenge. Here we evaluate the efficacy of mandatory regulations in Spain, a decentralized country, for the effective protection of threatened terrestrial vertebrates. We studied the association between the number of both “vulnerable” and “endangered” species on regional lists of threatened species and approved management plans for such species (mandatory) with ecological (e.g. percentage of forest and agricultural areas), social (e.g. environmental awareness and GPD per capita) and geographical (e.g. total and protected areas) variables on the regional scale. Our results showed that an approved management plan is available for only 20% of threatened terrestrial vertebrates and there were important taxonomical and regional biases. Higher protection levels appeared in regions with higher percentages of protected area, more citizens’ environmental awareness, lower GPD per capita and shorter regional lists. Herpetofauna has fewer approved management plans than mammals or birds. Our results highlight the importance of integrating the perspective, knowledge and practices of all stakeholders (Academia, governments and society) to effectively apply environmental regulations.

Red Kite shows a great variability in its migration strategies: most individuals in north-eastern Europe are migrants, but there is also a growing number of sedentary individuals. Here, we tagged 49 Red Kites wintering in Spain with GPS/satellite transmitters between 2013 and 2020 to study the autumn and spring migration between the breeding or summering areas in Central Europe and the wintering quarters in Spain. In first place, differences between immatures and adults were found for spring migration. Adults began the spring migration towards the northeast in February–March while the immature individuals began to migrate significantly later and showing a wider date range (February-June). Adults also takes significantly less days to arrive at their destinations (12 ± 5 days) and cover more distance per day (134.2 ± 37.1 km/day) than immatures (19 ± 11 days and 98.9 ± 21.2 km/day). In second place, we also found differences between spring and autumn migration (excluding immatures). Spring migrations were clearly faster and with less stopovers days than autumn migrations. Autumn migration began between mid-October and late November and two different behaviours were observed: most birds made a quick migration direct to the wintering areas with only some days of stopovers, but others prolonged the migration with long stops along the route. These results highlight a great variation in the migratory movements of Red Kite, not only according to age but also between individuals and seasons.

Apart from being the main cause of biodiversity loss, humans are also essential for sustainability and biological conservation. Regulations for the conservation of threatened species are key to respond to this challenge. Here we evaluate the efficacy of mandatory regulations in Spain, a decentralized country, for the effective protection of threatened terrestrial vertebrates. We studied the association between the number of both “vulnerable” and “endangered” species on regional lists of threatened species and approved management plans for such species (mandatory) with ecological (e.g. percentage of forest and agricultural areas), social (e.g. environmental awareness and GPD per capita) and geographical (e.g. total and protected areas) variables on the regional scale. Our results showed that an approved management plan is available for only 20% of threatened terrestrial vertebrates and there were important taxonomical and regional biases. Higher protection levels appeared in regions with higher percentages of protected area, more citizens’ environmental awareness, lower GPD per capita and shorter regional lists. Herpetofauna has fewer approved management plans than mammals or birds. Our results highlight the importance of integrating the perspective, knowledge and practices of all stakeholders (Academia, governments and society) to effectively apply environmental regulations.

Red Kite shows a great variability in its migration strategies: most individuals in north-eastern Europe are migrants, but there is also a growing number of sedentary individuals. Here, we tagged 49 Red Kites wintering in Spain with GPS/satellite transmitters between 2013 and 2020 to study the autumn and spring migration between the breeding or summering areas in Central Europe and the wintering quarters in Spain. In first place, differences between immatures and adults were found for spring migration. Adults began the spring migration towards the northeast in February–March while the immature individuals began to migrate significantly later and showing a wider date range (February-June). Adults also takes significantly less days to arrive at their destinations (12 ± 5 days) and cover more distance per day (134.2 ± 37.1 km/day) than immatures (19 ± 11 days and 98.9 ± 21.2 km/day). In second place, we also found differences between spring and autumn migration (excluding immatures). Spring migrations were clearly faster and with less stopovers days than autumn migrations. Autumn migration began between mid-October and late November and two different behaviours were observed: most birds made a quick migration direct to the wintering areas with only some days of stopovers, but others prolonged the migration with long stops along the route. These results highlight a great variation in the migratory movements of Red Kite, not only according to age but also between individuals and seasons.