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Context: Several secondary studies have investigated the relationship between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and external quality attributes. Sometimes they have contradictory results. Objective: We synthesize evidence of the link between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and external quality attributes along with the efficacy of the prediction models used. Method: We conducted a tertiary review to identify, evaluate and synthesize secondary studies. We used several characteristics of secondary studies as indicators for the strength of evidence and considered them when synthesizing the results. Results: From 711 secondary studies, we identified 15 secondary studies that have investigated the link between source code and external quality. Our results show : (1) primarily, the focus has been on object-oriented systems, (2) maintainability and reliability are most often linked to internal quality attributes and source code metrics, with only one secondary study reporting evidence for security, (3) only a small set of complexity, coupling, and size-related source code metrics report a consistent positive link with maintainability and reliability, and (4) group method of data handling (GMDH) based prediction models have performed better than other prediction models for maintainability prediction. Conclusions: Based on our results, lines of code, coupling, complexity and the cohesion metrics from Chidamber & Kemerer (CK) metrics are good indicators of maintainability with consistent evidence from high and moderate-quality secondary studies. Similarly, four CK metrics related to coupling, complexity and cohesion are good indicators of reliability, while inheritance and certain cohesion metrics show no consistent evidence of links to maintainability and reliability. Further empirical studies are needed to explore the link between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and other external quality attributes, including functionali

Context: Several secondary studies have investigated the relationship between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and external quality attributes. Sometimes they have contradictory results. Objective: We synthesize evidence of the link between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and external quality attributes along with the efficacy of the prediction models used. Method: We conducted a tertiary review to identify, evaluate and synthesize secondary studies. We used several characteristics of secondary studies as indicators for the strength of evidence and considered them when synthesizing the results. Results: From 711 secondary studies, we identified 15 secondary studies that have investigated the link between source code and external quality. Our results show : (1) primarily, the focus has been on object-oriented systems, (2) maintainability and reliability are most often linked to internal quality attributes and source code metrics, with only one secondary study reporting evidence for security, (3) only a small set of complexity, coupling, and size-related source code metrics report a consistent positive link with maintainability and reliability, and (4) group method of data handling (GMDH) based prediction models have performed better than other prediction models for maintainability prediction. Conclusions: Based on our results, lines of code, coupling, complexity and the cohesion metrics from Chidamber & Kemerer (CK) metrics are good indicators of maintainability with consistent evidence from high and moderate-quality secondary studies. Similarly, four CK metrics related to coupling, complexity and cohesion are good indicators of reliability, while inheritance and certain cohesion metrics show no consistent evidence of links to maintainability and reliability. Further empirical studies are needed to explore the link between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and other external quality attributes, including functionali

Context: Several secondary studies have investigated the relationship between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and external quality attributes. Sometimes they have contradictory results. Objective: We synthesize evidence of the link between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and external quality attributes along with the efficacy of the prediction models used. Method: We conducted a tertiary review to identify, evaluate and synthesize secondary studies. We used several characteristics of secondary studies as indicators for the strength of evidence and considered them when synthesizing the results. Results: From 711 secondary studies, we identified 15 secondary studies that have investigated the link between source code and external quality. Our results show : (1) primarily, the focus has been on object-oriented systems, (2) maintainability and reliability are most often linked to internal quality attributes and source code metrics, with only one secondary study reporting evidence for security, (3) only a small set of complexity, coupling, and size-related source code metrics report a consistent positive link with maintainability and reliability, and (4) group method of data handling (GMDH) based prediction models have performed better than other prediction models for maintainability prediction. Conclusions: Based on our results, lines of code, coupling, complexity and the cohesion metrics from Chidamber & Kemerer (CK) metrics are good indicators of maintainability with consistent evidence from high and moderate-quality secondary studies. Similarly, four CK metrics related to coupling, complexity and cohesion are good indicators of reliability, while inheritance and certain cohesion metrics show no consistent evidence of links to maintainability and reliability. Further empirical studies are needed to explore the link between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and other external quality attributes, including functionali

Context: Several secondary studies have investigated the relationship between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and external quality attributes. Sometimes they have contradictory results. Objective: We synthesize evidence of the link between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and external quality attributes along with the efficacy of the prediction models used. Method: We conducted a tertiary review to identify, evaluate and synthesize secondary studies. We used several characteristics of secondary studies as indicators for the strength of evidence and considered them when synthesizing the results. Results: From 711 secondary studies, we identified 15 secondary studies that have investigated the link between source code and external quality. Our results show : (1) primarily, the focus has been on object-oriented systems, (2) maintainability and reliability are most often linked to internal quality attributes and source code metrics, with only one secondary study reporting evidence for security, (3) only a small set of complexity, coupling, and size-related source code metrics report a consistent positive link with maintainability and reliability, and (4) group method of data handling (GMDH) based prediction models have performed better than other prediction models for maintainability prediction. Conclusions: Based on our results, lines of code, coupling, complexity and the cohesion metrics from Chidamber & Kemerer (CK) metrics are good indicators of maintainability with consistent evidence from high and moderate-quality secondary studies. Similarly, four CK metrics related to coupling, complexity and cohesion are good indicators of reliability, while inheritance and certain cohesion metrics show no consistent evidence of links to maintainability and reliability. Further empirical studies are needed to explore the link between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and other external quality attributes, including functionali

Context: Several secondary studies have investigated the relationship between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and external quality attributes. Sometimes they have contradictory results. Objective: We synthesize evidence of the link between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and external quality attributes along with the efficacy of the prediction models used. Method: We conducted a tertiary review to identify, evaluate and synthesize secondary studies. We used several characteristics of secondary studies as indicators for the strength of evidence and considered them when synthesizing the results. Results: From 711 secondary studies, we identified 15 secondary studies that have investigated the link between source code and external quality. Our results show : (1) primarily, the focus has been on object-oriented systems, (2) maintainability and reliability are most often linked to internal quality attributes and source code metrics, with only one secondary study reporting evidence for security, (3) only a small set of complexity, coupling, and size-related source code metrics report a consistent positive link with maintainability and reliability, and (4) group method of data handling (GMDH) based prediction models have performed better than other prediction models for maintainability prediction. Conclusions: Based on our results, lines of code, coupling, complexity and the cohesion metrics from Chidamber & Kemerer (CK) metrics are good indicators of maintainability with consistent evidence from high and moderate-quality secondary studies. Similarly, four CK metrics related to coupling, complexity and cohesion are good indicators of reliability, while inheritance and certain cohesion metrics show no consistent evidence of links to maintainability and reliability. Further empirical studies are needed to explore the link between internal quality attributes, source code metrics and other external quality attributes, including functionali

Objective: the purpose of this study is a determination of the procedural status of electronic documents as electronic evidence and identification of gaps in legislation regarding their legal regulation.   Theoretical framework: theoretical materials were based on international scientific publications, reports, and scientific papers. And also for a more complete and objective presentation of the problem being studied, also practical materials from criminal cases were used.   Method: is a dialectical method of understanding general patterns and particular manifestations of the essence of phenomena of objective reality. The comparative legal method made it possible to qualitatively study foreign legislation from the point of view of the legal regulation of electronic evidence and their application in practice. The method of mathematical analysis and logic made it possible to analyze everything that could relate to electronic evidence, identifying their characteristics.   Results and conclusion: electronic evidence is information in electronic digital form, suitable for communication, interpretation or processing. In the electronic digital environment, the main interacting objects are various kinds of information objects (data sets, files, programs, etc.) with a complex hierarchical structure. Data in electronic digital form are intended to transmit information through media, information systems and telecommunication networks, and in the event of a crime being committed against them, their protection is of primary interest, and the nature and content of this data fades into the background.   Originality/value: the value of the study lies in the fact that, based on a comprehensive analysis, electronic evidence has a unique structure and ensuring their safety is one of the criteria for their use, as well as the possibility of introducing a copying function will expand the process of processing evidence. The concept of “computer information” is the aut

Objective: The study of the features of the process of proof in criminal cases of tax evasion from organizations.   Theoretical framework: Theoretical materials were based on international scientific publications, reports, and scientific papers. And also for a more complete and objective presentation of the problem being studied, practical materials from criminal cases were used.   Method: It is a method to analyze the knowledge of the general patterns that characterize the evidentiary process in criminal cases of tax evasion. The methods of deduction and inducement made it possible to highlight the problematic aspects and characteristics of the investigation of evidence in criminal cases of tax evasion in criminal cases of tax evasion.   Results and conclusion: Different points of view on the determinants of tax crimes are taken into account, taking into account macro factors, moving to microregulatory factors and moving to an additional need for sanction of some tax evasion actions.The author concludes that there is a need to improve the standards of legislation in order to deal effectively with tax offences.   Originality/value: In criminal cases of tax evasion, the characteristics, procedure and mandatory points of the proof process of the entities are analyzed, which will allow us to identify many relevant circumstances. This type of crime greatly damages the budget of the Kazakhstan, and nowadays it has a great tendency for the problems of investigating tax crimes and one of its most dangerous manifestations, tax evasion, to be significant.

Objective: This study aimed to demonstrate the role of testimony as a means of proof in the Jordanian administrative judiciary.   Theoretical Framework: The first topic came to clarify the concept of testimony and proof in language and terminology. As for the topic The second bears a title Certificate in eliminate Admin Jordanian its importance, types and procedures, And its conditions, and in the third topic, We are touched on talking about fields Business Certificate in eliminate Admin.   Method: Researcher on curriculum descriptive Analytical in this search and that from during clarification texts legal to the courts Admin in Jordan and a statement faces shortcomings and weakness in showing Role Certificate as a means Proof in eliminate Administrative, and the research was divided into three main sections.   Result and Conclusion: The research reached many results, perhaps the most important of which is that testimony as a means of proof in the Jordanian administrative judiciary was not a main means of proof, but the judge can dispense with it if he decides not to use it.   Research Implications: The legislator increased the legal texts in the Jordanian Administrative Law of 2014 related to the testimony of witnesses, as the texts were scattered and almost negligible.   Originality/value: Our study contributes to referring to the legal allegations in the light of information technology, which can be relied upon by the courts in the event of a conflict with the testimony of individuals.

Sexual assault in Costa Rica represents a topic of social interest, which can be considered a consequence of violence in the country. Sexual assault can manifest in different forms or follow certain patterns of abuse, making it a challenge for healthcare personnel, who need to be prepared and trained to attend to patients facing such circumstances. This is especially true for emergency service personnel, as they often serve as the frontline responders and must promptly notify the authorities. Implementing a care protocol that prioritizes the physical and emotional assessment of the patient and ensures a proper report to the relevant authorities is crucial., La agresión sexual en Costa Rica representa un tema de interés social, el cual se puede considerar consecuencia de la violencia en el país. La agresión sexual puede presentarse de formas muy distintas o bien bajo ciertos patrones de abuso, lo cual la convierte en un reto para el personal de salud, el cual debe estar preparado y capacitado para la atención de pacientes que se enfrenten en este tipo de circunstancia; sobre todo el personal del servicio de emergencias, ya que en muchas ocasiones representan la primera línea de atención y de alarma para la notificación a las autoridades. La representación de un protocolo de atención donde se priorice la valoración física y emocional del paciente, y además se les pueda garantizar un adecuado reporte a las autoridades correspondientes.

El problema se configura porque hay insumos teóricos y doctrinarios, que se pueden aplicar a la defensa y que versan específicamente sobre el delito de tráfico de drogas en mínima escala, como es el caso de la atipicidad por el incumplimiento de los elementos objetivos del tipo penal, las causas de exclusión de tipicidad o error de tipo, inclusive causas de exculpación. Al no tomarse en cuenta estos insumos, no se podría asesorar efectivamente a la persona procesada, con relación a las ventajas o desventajas para que se someta al procedimiento abreviado, esto lleva a que no permite configurar una defensa técnica eficiente para que los defensores y/o abogados en libre ejercicio, puedan desenvolverse en la dinámica de la litigación penal. El objetivo principal del presente análisis se enmarca bajo la consigna de establecer al Modelo de defensa estratégica de litigación penal para delitos de tráfico de mínima escala de drogas. Las principales interrogantes que surgen dentro del estudio se asocian: ¿Cuáles son los fundamentos doctrinarios que se pueden manejar respecto de los delitos de tráfico de drogas en mínima escala?; ¿Cuáles son los elementos que configuran un modelo de estrategia de defensa en litigación oral? El presente documento científico, se determina en un orden teórico descriptivo de carácter documental, puesto que en este proceso se ha llevado a cabo una indagación, estructuración, tratamiento de la información y un escrutinio de varios documentos electrónicos y bibliografía respecto de la litigación penal, con el fin de crear un modelo y materializarlo en la práctica, con el fin de alcanzar una eficiente defensa técnica en cuanto a los delitos de tráfico de drogas en mínima escala. En cuanto a los resultados, se determina que la teoría del caso, es el factor principal que determinará el éxito del juicio. Esto por cuanto, el proceso penal es uno de conocimiento, es decir, conforme van avanzando sus etapas, se obtienen vestigios, evidencias, elementos de c

The classical concept of observation in contemporary astrophysics has undergone considerable changes, mainly due to certain observations carried out with computational simulations. Taking into account how this notion has evolved in the last decades, different philosophical reflections about observability will be analyzed. Here, topics such as the theoretical-observational dichotomy, the realism-antirealism debate and those current treatments closely related to scientific practices, alluding to the distinction between observable and unobservable entities, will be considered. In this article, and through a case study, the role of external validation will be analyzed in this field. Different mechanisms of data production and their eventual reduction in astroinformatics will be studied, considering data acquired both through traditional or observational ways or through simulation models. In relation to this point, the proposal offered by Reiss (2019) will be developed, examining the arguments for and against the external validation.Thus, current validation strategies in different data models will be identified, establishing the appropriate links for a quantitative and qualitative assessment of observations and simulations. From the interplay between observations and simulations, the status and configuration of the available evidence and its dependence on the design of current observations will be shown. It will be concluded that the interaction between observation and simulation models not only contributes to the development of heuristic guides, but also allows profitable feedback in the external validation processes of both models., El concepto clásico de observación en la astrofísica contemporánea ha sufrido cambios considerables debido, en gran parte, a ciertas observaciones llevadas a cabo a través de simulaciones computacionales. Al considerarse la evolución que ha tenido esta noción en las últimas décadas, se analizarán diferentes reflexiones filosóficas acerca de la observabilidad. Se mencionará la dicotomía teórico-observacional, el debate realismo-antirrealismo y aquellos tratamientos actuales más afines a las prácticas científicas, aludiendo a la distinción entre entidades observables e inobservables. En este trabajo se abordará, mediante un estudio de caso, la problemática en torno al rol de la validación externa en este ámbito disciplinar. Teniendo en cuenta los datos adquiridos tanto por la vía tradicional u observacional, como por aquélla lograda mediante modelos de simulación, se analizarán los diferentes mecanismos de producción de datos y su eventual reducción en astroinformática. A propósito, se desarrollará la propuesta ofrecida por Reiss (2019), examinando los argumentos a favor y en contra de la validación externa. Así, se identificarán aquellas estrategias vigentes de validación en modelos de datos diferentes, estableciendo los vínculos necesarios para una valoración cuantitativa y cualitativa de observaciones y de simulaciones. A partir del inter-juego entre estas últimas se mostrará el estatus y la conformación de la evidencia disponible y su dependencia con el diseño de las observaciones actuales. Se concluirá que la interacción entre modelos de observación y de simulación no sólo contribuyen al desarrollo de guías heurísticas, sino que permiten una retroalimentación favorable en los procesos de validación externa de ambos modelos.

This study aims to determine the position of digital examination results as electronic evidence for proving criminal acts of information and electronic transactions. This research was conducted using normative research methods. which is done by researching library materials and judges' decisions then analyzing the materials which are methods or methods used in a legal research to find answers which will later become a prescription for the legal problems faced. The results of this study indicate that digital evidence in the form of information and electronic documents and has passed the digital forensic process is legal evidence, as stated in Article 5 paragraphs (1) and (2) of Law Number 19 of 2016 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions. . So that the position of electronic evidence from the results of digital forensic examinations as evidence of expert testimony and documentary evidence at the stage of investigation and proof in the trial process.

I apply Dawid's Meta-Empirical Assessment (MEA) methodology to the theory of cosmological inflation. I argue that applying this methodology does not currently offer a compelling case for ascribing non-empirical confirmation to cosmological inflation. In particular, I argue that despite possessing a good argument for strong examples of Unexpected Explanatory Coherence (UEA), it is premature to evaluate the theory on the basis of the No Alternatives Argument (NAA). More significantly though, I argue that the theory of cosmological inflation fails to sustain a convincing Meta-Inductive Argument (MIA) because the empirical evidence and theoretical successes that it seeks to draw meta-empirical support from do not warrant a meta-inductive inference to inflation. I conclude by assessing how future developments could pave the way towards crafting a more compelling case for the non-empirical confirmation of cosmological inflation.

Wodak (2019) persuasively argues that we are not justified in believing that well-being measurements are linear. From this, he infers grave consequences for both political philosophy thought experiments and empirical psychological research. Here I argue that these consequences do not follow. Wodak’s challenges to the status of well-being measurements do not affect thought experiments, and well-being empirical researchers may be justified in making average comparisons even if their measurements are not linear.

From Copernicus himself up to Kepler and Galilei, Copernicans have been "right for the wrong reasons" (Finocchiaro 2010), because there were no epistemically compelling reasons objectively favoring the Copernican position at that stage – a good deal of research in the history and philosophy of science has converged on this claim. The situation of early Copernicans would then be regarded as one of "epistemic luck". Imre Lakatos and Elie Zahar (1975) have featured in one relatively rare contemporary episode of sustained opposition to the epistemic luck thesis about early Copernicanism. Although known and appreciated in certain philosophical circles, it is fair to say that Lakatos and Zahar's predictivist vindication has remained quite unsuccessful. The goal of this paper is to revive it in updated form. My analysis will support two general claims. First and foremost, previous limitations of a predictivist account of the Copernican controversy can be amended to counter the epistemic luck thesis. And second, consideration of the vindication thesis highlights certain important but neglected elements of the historical narrative.

In recent debates about the replication crisis, two positions have been dominant: One that focuses on methodological reforms and one that focuses on theory-building. This paper takes up the suggestion that there might be a deeper difference in play, concerning the ways the very subject matter of psychology is construed by opposing camps, i.e., in terms of stable effects vs in terms of complexity. I argue that both gets something right, but neither is sufficient. My analysis suggests that the contextsensitivity of the psychological subject matter needs to be front and center of methodological and theoretical efforts. Powered

We employ a pragmatic model of inquiry to distinguish the epistemological character of exploratory experimentation. Exploratory experimentation is not constituted by any intrinsic characteristics of an episode of experimentation but depends on the context and aims of the experiment and the ways in which these shape decisions about how the experimental inquiry is to be conducted: its tasks, resources, and aims, as well as the critical assessment of all of these. To demonstrate the usefulness of our approach, we apply it to the contrast between two kinds of searches for new physics at the Large Hadron Collider. Some searches are exploratory while others target specific Beyond Standard Model hypotheses, but this contrast can be understood only by considering the relations between these searches, their aims, and the way that these aims shape their respective experimental parameters and procedures. Our approach provides a model for establishing the epistemological significance of details of experimental practice.

It seems intuitive that our credal states are improved if we obtain evidence favoring truth over any falsehood. In this regard, Fallis and Lewis have recently provided and discussed some formal versions of such an intuition, which they name `the Monotonicity Principle' and `Elimination'. They argue, with those principles in hand, that the Brier rule, one of the most popular rules of accuracy, is not a good measure, and that accuracy-firsters cannot underwrite both probabilism and conditionalization. In this paper, I will argue that their conclusions are somewhat hasty. Specifically, I will demonstrate that there is another version of the Monotonicity Principle that can be satisfied by some additive rules of accuracy, such as the Brier rule. Moreover, it will also be argued that their version of the principle has some undesirable features regarding the epistemic betterness. Therefore, their criticisms can hardly jeopardize accuracy-firsters until any further justification of their versions of the Monotonicity Principle and Elimination is provided.

Is more information always better? Or are there some situations in which more information can make us worse off? Good (1966) argues that expected utility maximizers should always accept more information if the information is cost-free and relevant. But Good's argument presupposes that you are certain you will update by conditionalization. If we relax this assumption and allow agents to be uncertain about updating, these agents can be rationally required to reject free and relevant information. Since there are good reasons to be uncertain about updating, rationality can require you to prefer ignorance.

Marine ecosystems are under increasing pressure from human activity, yet successful management relies on knowledge. The evidence-based policy (EBP) approach has been promoted on the grounds that it provides greater transparency and consistency by relying on ‘high quality’ information. However, EBP also creates epistemic responsibilities. Decision-making where limited or no empirical evidence exists, such as is often the case in marine systems, creates epistemic obligations for new information acquisition. We argue that philosophical approaches can inform the science-policy interface. Using marine biosecurity examples, we specifically examine the epistemic challenges in the acquisition and acceptance of evidence to inform policy, discussing epistemic due care and biases in consideration of evidence.

Is more information always better? Or are there some situations in which more information can make us worse off? Good (1966) argues that expected utility maximizers should always accept more information if the information is cost-free and relevant. But Good's argument presupposes that you are certain you will update by conditionalization. If we relax this assumption and allow agents to be uncertain about updating, these agents can be rationally required to reject free and relevant information. Since there are good reasons to be uncertain about updating, rationality can require you to prefer ignorance.

Biomedical deployments of data science capitalise on vast, heterogeneous data sources. This promotes a diversified understanding of what counts as evidence for health-related interventions, beyond the strictures associated with evidence-based medicine. Focusing on COVID-19 transmission and prevention research, I consider the epistemic implications of this diversification of evidence in relation to: (1) experimental design, especially the revival of natural experiments as sources of reliable epidemiological knowledge; and (2) modelling practices, particularly the recognition of transdisciplinary expertise as crucial to developing and interpreting data models. Acknowledging such shifts in evidential, experimental and modelling practices helps avoid harmful applications of data-intensive methods.

It seems intuitive that our credal states are improved if we obtain evidence favoring truth over any falsehood. In this regard, Fallis and Lewis have recently provided and discussed some formal versions of such an intuition, which they name `the Monotonicity Principle' and `Elimination'. They argue, with those principles in hand, that the Brier rule, one of the most popular rules of accuracy, is not a good measure, and that accuracy-firsters cannot underwrite both probabilism and conditionalization. In this paper, I will argue that their conclusions are somewhat hasty. Specifically, I will demonstrate that there is another version of the Monotonicity Principle that can be satisfied by some additive rules of accuracy, such as the Brier rule. Moreover, it will also be argued that their version of the principle has some undesirable features regarding the epistemic betterness. Therefore, their criticisms can hardly jeopardize accuracy-firsters until any further justification of their versions of the Monotonicity Principle and Elimination is provided.

This paper argues against general claims for the epistemic superiority of experiment over observation. It does so by dissociating the benefits traditionally attributed to experiment from physical manipulation. In place of manipulation, we argue that other features of research methods do confer epistemic advantages in comparison to methods in which they are diminished. These features better track the epistemic successes and failures of scientific research, cross-cut the observation/experiment distinction, and nevertheless explain why manipulative experiments are successful when they are.

Canonically, ‘classic’ tests of general relativity (GR) include perihelion precession, the bending of light around stars, and gravitational redshift; ‘modern’ tests have to do with, inter alia, relativistic time delay, equivalence principle tests, gravitational lensing, strong field gravity, and gravitational waves. The orthodoxy is that both classic and modern tests of GR afford experimental confirmation of that theory in particular. In this article, we question this orthodoxy, by showing there are classes of both relativistic theories (with spatiotemporal geometrical properties different from those of GR) and non-relativistic theories (in which the lightcones of a relativistic spacetime are ‘flattened’) which would also pass such tests. Thus, (a) issues of underdetermination in the context of GR loom much larger than one might have thought, and (b) given this, one has to think more carefully about what exactly such tests in fact are testing.

Current cosmological observations place little constraints on the nature of dark matter, allowing the development of a large number of viable models and various methods for probing their properties. At first glance, this variety of models and methods provides ideal grounds for the employment of robustness arguments in dark matter research. The aim of this article is to examine the extent to which such arguments can be used to overcome various methodological and theoretical challenges. The main conclusion is that while robustness arguments have a limited scope in the context of dark matter research, they can still be used for increasing the scientists' confidence about the properties of specific models.

The philosophical literature on scientific explanation in neuroscience has been dominated by the idea of mechanisms. The mechanist philosophers often claim that neuroscience is in the business of finding mechanisms. This view has been challenged in numerous ways by showing that there are other successful and widespread explanatory strategies in neuroscience. However, the empirical evidence for all these claims was hitherto lacking. Empirical evidence about the pervasiveness and uses of various explanatory strategies in neuroscience is particularly needed because examples and case studies that are used to illustrate philosophical claims so far tend to be hand-picked. The risk of confirmation bias is therefore considerable: when looking for white swans, all one finds is that swans are white. The more systematic quantitative and qualitative bibliometric study of a large body of relevant literature that we present in this paper can put such claims into perspective. Using bibliometric tools, we identify the typical linguistic patterns used in the alleged mechanistic, dynamical, and topological explanations in the literature, their preponderance and how they change over time. Our findings show abundant use of mechanistic language, but also the presence of a significant neuroscience literature using topological and dynamical explanatory language, which grows over time and increasingly differentiates from each other and from mechanistic explanations.

The present investigation analyzes the lack of a prudent time to obtain the necessary means of proof within the expedited procedure, which is also known as the obligation to announce the burden of proof in the respective procedure of criminal violations, the existence of such a short time can impact the evidence as one of the most important instruments for the development of the criminal process, since it has a specific objective which is to demonstrate a reality and direct a person to the conviction of a particular fact that needs to be demonstrated. Likewise, this situation can ignore the procedural activity of the defense, which guarantees people to have the tools to prepare their arguments in the trial and thus grant the judge that persuasion of the disputed facts. The procedure of criminal contraventions does not take place under the parameters of the right to defense, which determines that the parties to the proceedings must have adequate time and means to prepare the defense and clearly transmit to the judge the reality of the facts. As a result of the investigation carried out, it is determined that the three-day time contemplated by the legislator in the expedited procedure for criminal offences violates the right to defense by preventing the parties to the proceedings from having all the evidence to assert their claims before the judge., La presente investigación analiza la falta de un tiempo prudente para obtener los medios de prueba necesarios dentro del procedimiento expedito, lo cual también se conoce como la obligación de anunciar la carga probatoria en el respectivo procedimiento de contravenciones penales, la existencia de un tiempo tan corto puede llegar a impactar a la prueba como uno de los instrumentos más importantes para el desarrollo del proceso penal, ya que tiene un objetivo específico que es demostrar una realidad y dirigir a una persona a la convicción de un hecho en particular que se requiere demostrar. Así mismo esta situación puede llegar a desconocer la actividad procesal de la defensa, la cual garantiza a las personas contar con todos los instrumentos para preparar sus argumentos en el juicio y así otorgar al juez esa persuasión de los hechos controvertidos. El procedimiento de contravenciones penales no se desarrolla bajo los parámetros del derecho a la defensa que determina que las partes procesales deben contar con el tiempo y los medios adecuados para preparar la defensa y transmitir al juzgador de manera clara la realidad de los hechos. Como resultado de la investigación efectuada se determina qué el tiempo de tres días contemplado por el legislador en el procedimiento expedito de contravenciones penales vulnera el derecho a la defensa al impedir que las partes procesales tengan todos los elementos probatorios para hacer valer sus pretensiones ante el juez.

En este trabajo se analiza una discusión reciente sobre la naturaleza de los argumentos visuales en la que se empleó como caso de prueba un fallo judicial en el que la única evidencia de cargo fue una fotografía (People v Doggett, California, 1948). Se reconstruye de forma más completa y rigurosa la argumentación judicial para señalar los problemas de las dos concepciones enfrentadas, y sostener que el caso muestra que –en contra de lo que afirman los protagonistas de la discusión– no existen los argumentos visuales. A continuación, se examinan los presupuestos teóricos movilizados por el uso de fotografías en la sentencia, para llevar a cabo una primera aproximación no sistemática a las cuestiones que debería abordar una concepción general sobre el uso de las imágenes en la argumentación jurídica. En el caso de prueba se asume que las fotografías ingresan en la argumentación como afirmaciones sobre su contenido proposicional (significado) y en el proceso de toma de decisiones como los objetos de los que depende la verdad de esas afirmaciones (evidencias). También que existe una relación entre las distintas formas en las que una fotografía comunica su significado (mostrar p, representar p y sugerir p) y su fuerza probatoria. Para dar sentido a las distintas valoraciones probatorias que realizan en el fallo fue necesario explorar la posición teórica que permitiría justificar las distinciones en las que se basan, así como la forma de entender la percepción visual que presuponen. Si se acepta la naturaleza inferencial del proceso que permite ver algo al mirar una fotografía se podría exigir a los jueces y juezas la explicitación de parte de esos argumentos cuando justifican sus decisiones., This paper analyses a recent discussion on the nature of visual arguments in which a court ruling –in which the only evidence was a photograph (People v Doggett, California, 1948)– was used as a test case. We reconstruct the court argumentation more thoroughly and rigorously to point out the problems of the two competing conceptions, and to argue that the case shows that – contrary to the claims of the protagonists in the discussion – there is no such thing as a visual argument. The theoretical assumptions mobilized by photographs in the sentence are then examined to carry out a first non-systematic approach to the issues that a general conception of the use of images in legal argumentation should address. The test case assumed that photographs enter the argumentation as statements about their propositional content (meaning) and in the decision-making process as the objects on which the truth of those statements depends (evidence). Also, there is a relationship between the different ways a photograph communicates its meaning (to show p, to represent p and to suggest p) and its evidential force. In order to make sense of the different evidential assessments they make in the ruling, it was necessary to explore the theoretical position that would justify the distinctions on which they are based, as well as the understanding of visual perception that they presuppose. If one accepts the inferential nature of the process of seeing something when looking at a photograph, judges could be required to make some of these arguments explicit when justifying their decisions.

This work intends to establish the foundation for furthering the epistemic analysis of legal controversies regarding tax law and particularly the phenomenon of tax avoidance. Starting from the diagnosis that there is little interest on the part of the doctrine in dealing with the particularities of interpreting facts on this subject, the intent is to relate how facts of tax relevance should be construed from linguistic uses rather than legal uses, adopting the developments of rationalism in evidence studies. This is the only way to build a rationally controllable conceptual apparatus capable of guiding the behavior of the targets of laws., Este trabalho pretende estabelecer as bases de um aprofundamento na análise epistêmica das controvérsias jurídicas em matéria tributária e, particularmente, do fenômeno da evasão. Parte-se do diagnóstico de que existe um escasso interesse por parte da dogmática, em tratar das particularidades da interpretação dos fatos nessa matéria. Assim, busca-se mostrar como, adotando os desenvolvimentos do racionalismo nos estudos sobre a prova, a interpretação dos fatos de relevância tributária deve ser realizada a partir dos usos linguísticos e não tanto com base nos usos jurídicos. Somente assim é possível a construção de um aparato conceitual racionalmente controlável, e capaz de orientar o comportamento dos destinatários das normas., El presente trabajo pretende sentar las bases de una profundización en el análisis epistémico de las controversias jurídicas en materia tributaria y, particularmente, del fenómeno de la elusión. Comenzando con el diagnóstico de que existe un escaso interés por parte de la dogmática en tratar las particularidades de la interpretación de los hechos en esta materia, se busca dar cuenta de cómo, adoptando los desarrollos del racionalismo en los estudios acerca de la prueba, la interpretación de los hechos de relevancia tributaria debe realizarse desde los usos lingüísticos más que desde los usos jurídicos. Solo así es posible la construcción de un aparato conceptual racionalmente controlable y capaz de orientar el comportamiento de los destinatarios de las normas.

Background: Health and welfare technologies (HWTs) are interventions that aim at maintaining or promoting health, well-being, quality of life, and increasing efficiency in the service delivery system of welfare, social, and health care services, while improving the working conditions of the staff. Health and social care must be evidence-based according to national policy, but there are indications that evidence for HWT effectiveness is lacking in related Swedish municipal work processes. Objective: This study aimed to investigate whether the evidence is used when Swedish municipalities procure, implement, and evaluate HWT, and if so, the kinds of evidence and the manner of their use. The study also aimed to identify if municipalities currently receive adequate support in using evidence for HWT, and if not, what support is desired. Methods: An explanatory sequential mixed methods design was used with quantitative surveys and subsequent semistructured interviews with officials in 5 nationally designated “model” municipalities regarding HWT implementation and use. Results: In the past 12 months, 4 of 5 municipalities had required some form of evidence during procurement processes, but the frequency of this varied and often consisted of references from other municipalities instead of other objective sources. Formulating requirements or requests for evidence during procurement was viewed as difficult, and gathered evidence was often only assessed by procurement administration personnel. In total, 2 of 5 municipalities used an established process for the implementation of HWT, and 3 of 5 had a plan for structured follow-up, but the use and dissemination of evidence within these were varying and often weakly integrated. Standardized processes for follow-up and evaluation across municipalities did not exist, and those processes used by individual municipalities were described as inadequate and difficult to follow. Most municipalities desired support for using evidence when

[ES] El presente TFG tiene como objetivo la creación de una guía que permita al profesional informático interesado en las periciales informáticas crear de forma sencilla informes de gestión tras el descubrimiento (o en la investigación) de los delitos informáticos más frecuentes, según las estadísticas del ministerio del Interior. Como objetivo secundario, se esquematizará el marco normativo actual en España bajo el amparo de la Unión Europea y se establecerá cuáles serían las formas de proceder de dicho perito ante la evidencia de un posible delito cometido a través de un ordenador., [EN] The objective of this TFG is the creation of a guide that allows the computer professional interested in computer experts to easily create management reports after the discovery (or in the investigation) of the most frequent computer crimes, according to the statistics of the Ministry of Inside. As a secondary objective, the current regulatory framework in Spain under the protection of the European Union will be outlined and the ways of proceeding of said expert will be established when faced with the evidence of a possible crime committed through a computer.

Person-specific evidence was developed as a grounded theory by analyzing 20 selected case descriptions from interventions using the guided self-determination method with people with various long-term health conditions. It explains the mechanisms of mobilizing relational capacity by including person-specific evidence in shared decision-making. Person-specific self-insight was the first step, achieved as individuals completed reflection sheets enabling them to clarify their personal values and identify actions or omissions related to self-management challenges. This step paved the way for sharing these insights and challenges in a relationship with a supportive health professional, who could then rely on person-specific evidence instead of assumptions or a narrow disease perspective for shared decision-making. Trust in the evidence encouraged the supportive health professional to transfer it to the interdisciplinary team. Person-specific evidence then enhanced the ability of team members to apply general evidence in a meaningful way. The increased openness achieved by individuals through these steps enabled them to eventually share their new self-insights in daily life with other people, decreasing loneliness they experienced in self-management. Relational capacity, the core of the theory, is mobilized in both people with long-term health conditions and healthcare professionals. Further research on person-specific evidence and relational capacity in healthcare is recommended., Person-specific evidence was developed as a grounded theory by analyzing 20 selected case descriptions from interventions using the guided self-determination method with people with various long-term health conditions. It explains the mechanisms of mobilizing relational capacity by including person-specific evidence in shared decision-making. Person-specific self-insight was the first step, achieved as individuals completed reflection sheets enabling them to clarify their personal values and identify actions or omissions related to self-management challenges. This step paved the way for sharing these insights and challenges in a relationship with a supportive health professional, who could then rely on person-specific evidence instead of assumptions or a narrow disease perspective for shared decision-making. Trust in the evidence encouraged the supportive health professional to transfer it to the interdisciplinary team. Person-specific evidence then enhanced the ability of team members to apply general evidence in a meaningful way. The increased openness achieved by individuals through these steps enabled them to eventually share their new self-insights in daily life with other people, decreasing loneliness they experienced in self-management. Relational capacity, the core of the theory, is mobilized in both people with long-term health conditions and healthcare professionals. Further research on person-specific evidence and relational capacity in healthcare is recommended.

We present a novel and easy-to-use method for calibrating error-rate based confidence intervals to evidence-based support intervals. Support intervals are obtained from inverting Bayes factors based on a parameter estimate and its standard error. A k support interval can be interpreted as “the observed data are at least k times more likely under the included parameter values than under a specified alternative.” Support intervals depend on the specification of prior distributions for the parameter under the alternative, and we present several types that allow different forms of external knowledge to be encoded. We also show how prior specification can to some extent be avoided by considering a class of prior distributions and then computing so-called minimum support intervals which, for a given class of priors, have a one-to-one mapping with confidence intervals. We also illustrate how the sample size of a future study can be determined based on the concept of support. Finally, we show how the bound for the Type I error rate of Bayes factors leads to a bound for the coverage of support intervals. An application to data from a clinical trial illustrates how support intervals can lead to inferences that are both intuitive and informative.

Předmětem této bakalářské práce je návrh prostředku pro evidenci letových hodin na základě legislativních, organizačních a jiných požadavků pro vybranou cílovou skupinu. Úvodní dvě kapitoly se věnují definici cílové skupiny a požadavkům, které tato skupina musí plnit pro řádnou evidenci letových hodin. V dalších kapitolách jsou představeny příklady různých podob evidence a jejich porovnání. V praktické části je uveden návrh aplikace, která splňuje požadavky cílové skupiny, její struktura, návrh uživatelského rozhraní a možnosti této aplikace. Závěr pojednává o zhodnocení možností této aplikace a potenciálu jejího použití i pro jiné cílové skupiny., This bachelor thesis aims to propose a design of a means for recording flight hours based on legislative, organizational, and other requirements for a selected target group. The initial two chapters are devoted to the definition of the target group and the conditions that this group must meet for proper flight hour recording. The following chapters present examples of different recording forms and their comparison. The practical part presents the design of an application that meets the target group's requirements, its structure, the design of the user interface, and the capabilities of this application. The conclusion discusses the evaluation of the possibilities of this application and the potential of its use for other target groups., Fakulta ekonomicko-správní, Student přednesl obhajobu práce s názvem: Návrh prostředku pro evidenci letových hodin pilotů pro širší použití. Cílem práce je navrhnou prostředek pro evidenci letových hodin na základě požadavků (legislativních, organizačních, ...) pro vybranou cílovou skupinu. Otázky dle posudku vedoucího bakalářské práce: Návrh je koncipován tak, aby umožnil využití aplikace pro evidenci letových hodin různých cílových skupin. Pokuste se vysvětlit základní rozdíly v použití aplikace pro některé z nich, případně porovnejte. Student na otázky reagoval., Dokončená práce s úspěšnou obhajobou

There remains no consensus among social scientists as to how to measure and understand forms of information deprivation such as misinformation. Machine learning and statistical analyses of information deprivation typically contain problematic operationalizations which are too often biased towards epistemic elites’ conceptions that can undermine their empirical adequacy. A mature science of information deprivation should include considerable citizen involvement that is sensitive to the value-ladenness of information quality and that doing so may improve the predictive and explanatory power of extant models.

Deep neural networks have found many useful applications in recent years. Of particular interest have been those instances where their successes imitate human cognition and many consider artificial intelligences to offer a lens for understanding human intelligence. Here, we criticize the underlying conflation between the predictive and explanatory power of deep neural networks by examining the goals of modeling.

There have recently been novel applications of medical systematic review guidelines to economic policy interventions which contain controversial methodological assumptions that require further scrutiny. A landmark 2017 Cochrane review of unconditional cash transfer (UCT) studies, based on the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE), exemplifies both the possibilities and limitations of applying medical systematic review guidelines to UCT and universal basic income (UBI) studies. Recognizing the need to upgrade GRADE to incorporate the differences between medical and policy interventions, the GRADE Public Health Project Group (PHPG) was convened to enumerate and address these methodological challenges. However, in light of our analysis of additional methodological challenges that arise for UCT and UBI studies, we argue that the adaptation of medical systematic review guidelines to economic methodology is far from straightforward and is in fact more challenging than claimed by the PHPG.

Scientific disagreements are an important catalyst for scientific progress. But what happens when scientists disagree amidst times of crisis, when we need quick yet reliable policy guidance? In this paper we provide a normative account for how scientists facing disagreement in the context of ‘fast science’ should respond, and how policy makers should evaluate such disagreement. Starting from an argumentative, pragma-dialectic account of scientific controversies, we argue for the importance of ‘higher-order evidence’ (HOE) and we specify desiderata for scientifically relevant HOE. We use our account to analyze the controversy about the aerosol transmission of COVID-19.

Due to their contested ethical and legal status, human cerebral organoids (HCOs) have become the subject of one of the most rapidly expanding debates in the recent bioethics literature. There is no doubt that their potential scientific usefulness is immense. Human cerebral organoids constitute 3D biological cultures grown in a lab to work as a placeholder model for the human brain, and their similarity can allow us to engage in research that would otherwise not be possible. Yet, it is precisely this similarity that raises ethical issues. That is, if these organoids resemble human brains, might they deserve similar protections?

There has been a great buzz surrounding Daniel Jafferis et al.'s latest Nature paper, "Traversable wormhole dynamics on a quantum processor". The Nature paper discusses an experiment in which Google's Sycamore quantum processor is used to simulate a sparse N = 7 SYK model with 5 terms (a learned Hamiltonian). The Nature paper shows that the learned Hamiltonian preserves the key gravitational characteristics of an N = 10 SYK model with 210 terms and is sufficient to produce a traversable wormhole behavior. I will examine the experiment and discuss some philosophical challenges concerning the experiment in memory of Ian Hacking. Recently, Norman Yao and two graduate students discovered multiple flaws in Jafferis et al.'s learned Hamiltonian and uploaded a comment on the Nature paper. As expected, Jafferis and his team found a simple way to clarify the misunderstanding. They found a physical justification that allowed them to avoid the problem. In this paper, I elucidate the main arguments Yao and his students raised and the way Jafferis et al. found to save their learned Hamiltonian. I will end this paper with a philosophical comment on this recent development in the context of the learned Hamiltonian.

The emergence of integrative approaches to the study of population health and the environment has yielded several new concepts, framing relations between health and the environment and defining different modes of integration in epidemiology and biomedicine. In this chapter, I discuss the relations between these concepts and data integration, as the ensemble of data practices aimed at using different types and bodies of data for the study of specific phenomena. I analyse three concepts in this direction: the exposome, a notion aimed at capturing all the exposures that individuals and populations experience; planetary health, a conceptualisation of the impact of local and multispecies environments on human health; and global health, a concept aimed at framing the health of populations as the result of different social factors of different and diverse populations. The focus on data integration allows me to discuss concrete consequences and differences of these concepts at the methodological and epistemological level, identifying their assumptions and commitments, merits, and limitations.

This article gives a conceptual review of the e-value, ev(H|X) – the epistemic value of hypothesis H given observations X. This statistical significance measure was developed in order to allow logically coherent and consistent tests of hypotheses, including sharp or precise hypotheses, via the Full Bayesian Significance Test (FBST). Arguments of analysis allow a full characterization of this statistical test by its logical or compositional properties, showing a mutual complementarity between results of mathematical statistics and the logical desiderata lying at the foundations of this theory.

This paper argues against a particular version of the inference from the success of a scientific theory to the claim that the theory must be approximately true to some extent. The kind of success at issue is comparative, where one theory is more empirically successful than its rival if that theory predicts phenomena that are inexplicable or anomalous according to its rival. A theory that exhibits this kind of comparative success can be seen as thereby achieving empirical progress over its rival. David Harker has developed a form of selective scientific realism based on the idea that this kind of success is evidence for the approximate truth of the parts of theories responsible for such success. Counterexamples to Harker’s position are cases in which a theory is more successful than its rival in virtue of containing parts that are not even approximately true. In order to identify some counterexamples to Harker’s position, this paper considers four historical cases that Greg Frost-Arnold has recently used to motivate a novel historical challenge to realism called the Problem of Misleading Evidence. This paper argues that these four cases are counterexamples to Harker’s position, and that they provide a strong reason to doubt his position and the kind of success-to-truth inference that he defends.

The stopping rule for a sequential experiment is the rule or procedure for determining when that experiment should end. Accordingly, the stopping rule principle (SRP) states that the evidential relationship between the final data from a sequential experiment and a hypothesis under consideration does not depend on the stopping rule: the same data should yield the same evidence, regardless of which stopping rule was used. I clarify and provide a novel defense of two interpretations of the main argument against the SRP, the foregone conclusions argument. According to the first, the SRP allows for highly confirmationally unreliable experiments, which concept I make precise, to confirm highly. According to the second, it entails the evidential equivalence of experiments differing significantly in their confirmational reliability. I rebut several attempts to deflate or deflect the foregone conclusion argument, drawing connections with replication in science and the likelihood principle.

Machine learning techniques have become an essential part of many scientific inquiries, promoting novel discoveries. Here we distinguish between the output-oriented approach which regards neural networks as black boxes, and the feature-oriented approach which seeks to reveal and scientifically adopt the features captured by the network for the purpose of exploration and novelty. Focusing on the latter, we point at an issue of non-uniqueness when choosing between three types of features – mathematical, diagnostic, and real-world features. Scientists make choices among numerous features and rationalize their choices with background assumptions, but when aiming at exploration in an immature domain, rationalization neither justifies the choice nor guarantees that the chosen features are real. As a result, we propose that machine-captured features for this purpose should not be used as full-fledged evidence, but scientists should focus on the instrumental value of these features, such as refining existing descriptions or methods and inspiring future directions of research. We also suggest promoting the transparency of feature selection rationale and the plurality of choices.

I argue that when we use ‘probability’ language in epistemic contexts—e.g., when we ask how probable some hypothesis is, given the evidence available to us—we are talking about degrees of support, rather than degrees of belief. The epistemic probability of A given B is the mind-independent degree to which B supports A, not the degree to which someone with B as their evidence believes A, or the degree to which someone would or should believe A if they had B as their evidence. My central argument is that the degree-of-support interpretation lets us better model good reasoning in certain cases involving old evidence. Degree-of-belief interpretations make the wrong predictions not only about whether old evidence confirms new hypotheses, but about the values of the probabilities that enter into Bayes’ Theorem when we calculate the probability of hypotheses conditional on old evidence and new background information.

This paper will discuss the recent LIGO-Virgo observations of gravitational waves and the binary black hole mergers that produce them. These observations rely on having prior knowledge of the dynamical behaviour of binary black hole systems, as governed by the Einstein Field Equations (EFEs). However, we currently lack any exact, analytic solutions to the EFEs describing such systems. In the absence of such solutions, a range of modelling approaches are used to mediate between the dynamical equations and the experimental data. Models based on post-Newtonian approximation, the effective one-body formalism, and numerical relativity simulations (and combinations of these) bridge the gap between theory and observations and make the LIGO-Virgo experiments possible. In particular, this paper will consider how such models are validated as accurate descriptions of real-world binary black hole mergers (and the resulting gravitational waves) in the face of an epistemic circularity problem: the validity of these models must be assumed to justify claims about gravitational wave sources, but this validity can only be established based on these same observations.

We all make judgments about what is true or false, probable or improbable. Scientists do so too. And in the process, we frequently appeal to concepts such as evidential support or explanation. Bayesian philosophers of science have given illuminating formal accounts of these concepts. This paper aims to follow in their footsteps, providing a novel formal account of various concepts: the likelihood-prior trade-off, successful accommodation of evidence, ad hocness, and, finally, consilience—sometimes also called “unification”. Using these accounts, I also provide a new Bayesian analysis of how someone such as Charles Darwin hypothetically could have reasoned in favor of evolution over special creationism. Lastly, I explore how these accounts relate to other topics and accounts in philosophy, and I chart out some areas for further research.

The voices of impacted people are some of the most important when trying to make improvements to social justice in a variety of contexts, including, criminal policing, housing, and health care. After all, the people with on the ground experience know what is likely to truly effectuate change in their community, and what is not. Yet, such lived experience is also often significantly lacking and undermined in law and policy. People with lived experience tend to be seen as both community experts with valuable knowledge, as well as non-experts with little valuable knowledge. This Article explores the lived experience with pollution as evidence in civil environmental enforcement permit litigation. In doing so, it makes three contributions to the literature. First, it articulates a vision for thinking about evidence in civil environmental permit litigation that is not solely focused on conventional “scientific” evidence, but also includes what this Article calls “community” evidence. Community evidence is the range of tools accessible to local communities that document the reality of their experience with pollution, such as lay witness testimony, photos and videos, demographic data, and citizen science. Second, it identifies key challenges with using community evidence in civil environmental enforcement permit cases in both the administrative and judicial contexts. Some cases encounter evidentiary challenges regarding relevancy, reliability, and scope, and others face more practical challenges such as lack of funding and understanding of the legal system. Third, it advocates for increased use of community evidence, in conjunction with conventional scientific evidence, as a mechanism to uplift the influence of the lived experience in environmental enforcement permit cases. Suggestions for how to do so include paying local community members for their expertise, proactively discussing community evidence in briefs and case opinions, and creating rebuttable presumptions for ce