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Introduction Social anxiety disorder (SAD) has an early onset, a high lifetime prevalence, and may be a risk factor for developing other mental disorders. Gaze behaviour is considered an aberrant feature of SAD. Eye-tracking, a novel technology device, enables recording eye movements in real time, making it a direct and objective measure of gaze behaviour. Virtual reality (VR) is a promising tool for assessment and diagnostic purposes. Developing an objective screening tool based on examination of gaze behaviour in SAD may potentially aid early detection. The objective of this current study is, therefore to examine gaze behaviour in SAD utilising VR. Methods and analysis A case–control study design is employed in which a clinical sample of 29 individuals with SAD will be compared with a matched healthy control group of 29 individuals. In the VR-based eye-tracking paradigm, participants will be presented to stimuli consisting of high-res 360° 3D stereoscopic videos of three social-evaluative tasks designed to elicit social anxiety. The study will investigate between-group gaze behaviour differences during stimuli presentation. Ethics and dissemination The study has been approved by the National Committee on Health Research Ethics for the Capital Region of Denmark (H-22041443). The study has been preregistered on OSF registries: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/XCTAK All participants will be provided with written and oral information. Informed consent is required for all the participants. Participation is voluntarily, and the participants can at any time terminate their participation without any consequences. Study results; positive, negative or inconclusive will be published in relevant scientific journals., INTRODUCTION: Social anxiety disorder (SAD) has an early onset, a high lifetime prevalence, and may be a risk factor for developing other mental disorders. Gaze behaviour is considered an aberrant feature of SAD. Eye-tracking, a novel technology device, enables recording eye movements in real time, making it a direct and objective measure of gaze behaviour. Virtual reality (VR) is a promising tool for assessment and diagnostic purposes. Developing an objective screening tool based on examination of gaze behaviour in SAD may potentially aid early detection. The objective of this current study is, therefore to examine gaze behaviour in SAD utilising VR.METHODS AND ANALYSIS: A case-control study design is employed in which a clinical sample of 29 individuals with SAD will be compared with a matched healthy control group of 29 individuals. In the VR-based eye-tracking paradigm, participants will be presented to stimuli consisting of high-res 360° 3D stereoscopic videos of three social-evaluative tasks designed to elicit social anxiety. The study will investigate between-group gaze behaviour differences during stimuli presentation.ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study has been approved by the National Committee on Health Research Ethics for the Capital Region of Denmark (H-22041443). The study has been preregistered on OSF registries: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/XCTAKAll participants will be provided with written and oral information. Informed consent is required for all the participants. Participation is voluntarily, and the participants can at any time terminate their participation without any consequences. Study results; positive, negative or inconclusive will be published in relevant scientific journals.

Introduction: Dementia care management is a complex intervention intended to support persons with dementia and their (caring) relatives in home-based care arrangements. Dementia care management was developed in the federal state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania in Germany and subsequently adapted for the German region of Siegen-Wittgenstein, where it will now be implemented. Four different service providers will carry out the implementation process. This study protocol describes the planned procedures for the parallel evaluation of the implementation process. Methods and analysis: A multiple embedded case study design was chosen for the planned process evaluation. Data collection and analysis will be informed by the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research, the Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change, the Medical Research Council framework for conducting process evaluations of complex interventions and the Taxonomy of Outcomes for Implementation Research. Information (qualitative and quantitative) will be collected from all stakeholders involved in the dementia care management intervention (ie, dementia care managers, general practitioners, people with dementia). Ethics and dissemination: The process evaluation is conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, the recommendations on good scientific practice, the research ethics principles of the Code of Ethics of the German Society of Nursing Science, and on the basis of ethical approval from the Clinical Ethics Committee of University Medicine Greifswald (BB 110/22). The results of the process evaluation will be disseminated through reports to the funders of the study and also as a summary of recommendations for the sustainable implementation of dementia care management for future implementers. We also plan to publish the results of this process evaluation in an international peer-reviewed journal.

Introduction Social anxiety disorder (SAD) has an early onset, a high lifetime prevalence, and may be a risk factor for developing other mental disorders. Gaze behaviour is considered an aberrant feature of SAD. Eye-tracking, a novel technology device, enables recording eye movements in real time, making it a direct and objective measure of gaze behaviour. Virtual reality (VR) is a promising tool for assessment and diagnostic purposes. Developing an objective screening tool based on examination of gaze behaviour in SAD may potentially aid early detection. The objective of this current study is, therefore to examine gaze behaviour in SAD utilising VR. Methods and analysis A case–control study design is employed in which a clinical sample of 29 individuals with SAD will be compared with a matched healthy control group of 29 individuals. In the VR-based eye-tracking paradigm, participants will be presented to stimuli consisting of high-res 360° 3D stereoscopic videos of three social-evaluative tasks designed to elicit social anxiety. The study will investigate between-group gaze behaviour differences during stimuli presentation. Ethics and dissemination The study has been approved by the National Committee on Health Research Ethics for the Capital Region of Denmark (H-22041443). The study has been preregistered on OSF registries: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/XCTAK All participants will be provided with written and oral information. Informed consent is required for all the participants. Participation is voluntarily, and the participants can at any time terminate their participation without any consequences. Study results; positive, negative or inconclusive will be published in relevant scientific journals., INTRODUCTION: Social anxiety disorder (SAD) has an early onset, a high lifetime prevalence, and may be a risk factor for developing other mental disorders. Gaze behaviour is considered an aberrant feature of SAD. Eye-tracking, a novel technology device, enables recording eye movements in real time, making it a direct and objective measure of gaze behaviour. Virtual reality (VR) is a promising tool for assessment and diagnostic purposes. Developing an objective screening tool based on examination of gaze behaviour in SAD may potentially aid early detection. The objective of this current study is, therefore to examine gaze behaviour in SAD utilising VR.METHODS AND ANALYSIS: A case-control study design is employed in which a clinical sample of 29 individuals with SAD will be compared with a matched healthy control group of 29 individuals. In the VR-based eye-tracking paradigm, participants will be presented to stimuli consisting of high-res 360° 3D stereoscopic videos of three social-evaluative tasks designed to elicit social anxiety. The study will investigate between-group gaze behaviour differences during stimuli presentation.ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study has been approved by the National Committee on Health Research Ethics for the Capital Region of Denmark (H-22041443). The study has been preregistered on OSF registries: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/XCTAKAll participants will be provided with written and oral information. Informed consent is required for all the participants. Participation is voluntarily, and the participants can at any time terminate their participation without any consequences. Study results; positive, negative or inconclusive will be published in relevant scientific journals.

Prevalence of research misconduct, questionable research practices (QRPs) and their associations with a range of explanatory factors has not been studied sufficiently among academic researchers. The National Survey on Research Integrity targeted all disciplinary fields and academic ranks in the Netherlands. It included questions about engagement in fabrication, falsification and 11 QRPs over the previous three years, and 12 explanatory factor scales. We ensured strict identity protection and used the randomized response method for questions on research misconduct. 6,813 respondents completed the survey. Prevalence of fabrication was 4.3% (95% CI: 2.9, 5.7) and of falsification 4.2% (95% CI: 2.8, 5.6). Prevalence of QRPs ranged from 0.6% (95% CI: 0.5, 0.9) to 17.5% (95% CI: 16.4, 18.7) with 51.3% (95% CI: 50.1, 52.5) of respondents engaging frequently in at least one QRP. Being a PhD candidate or junior researcher increased the odds of frequently engaging in at least one QRP, as did being male. Scientific norm subscription (odds ratio (OR) 0.79; 95% CI: 0.63, 1.00) and perceived likelihood of detection by reviewers (OR 0.62, 95% CI: 0.44, 0.88) were associated with engaging in less research misconduct. Publication pressure was associated with more often engaging in one or more QRPs frequently (OR 1.22, 95% CI: 1.14, 1.30). We found higher prevalence of misconduct than earlier surveys. Our results suggest that greater emphasis on scientific norm subscription, strengthening reviewers in their role as gatekeepers of research quality and curbing the "publish or perish" incentive system promotes research integrity.

The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) became binding law in the European Union Member States in 2018, as a step toward harmonizing personal data protection legislation in the European Union. The Regulation governs almost all types of personal data processing, hence, also, those pertaining to biomedical research. The purpose of this article is to highlight the main practical issues related to data and biological sample sharing that biomedical researchers face regularly, and to specify how these are addressed in the context of GDPR, after consulting with ethics/legal experts. We identify areas in which clarifications of the GDPR are needed, particularly those related to consent requirements by study participants. Amendments should target the following: (1) restricting exceptions based on national laws and increasing harmonization, (2) confirming the concept of broad consent, and (3) defining a roadmap for secondary use of data. These changes will be achieved by acknowledged learned societies in the field taking the lead in preparing a document giving guidance for the optimal interpretation of the GDPR, which will be finalized following a period of commenting by a broad multistakeholder audience. In parallel, promoting engagement and education of the public in the relevant issues (such as different consent types or residual risk for re-identification), on both local/national and international levels, is considered critical for advancement. We hope that this article will open this broad discussion involving all major stakeholders, toward optimizing the GDPR and allowing a harmonized transnational research approach.

Yapay zekâ (YZ) hayatın tüm alanında olduğu gibi, gün geçtikçe artan hız ve kapsamda sağlık bilimlerinde de uygulanmaktadır. YZ doğru aday molekülünün hızlı, güvenli ve etkili biçimde hastaya ulaşma sürecini hızlandıracağı gibi, klinik araştırma harcamalarını da azaltacak, dolaylı olarak bu sağlık ekonomisine de yansıyacaktır. YZ, klinik araştırma tasarımı, doğru araştırma popülasyonunun seçimi, ilaç etkililik ve güvenliliğinin izlenmesi, veri toplama ve analizi gibi araştırmanın birçok basamağında kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Fakat, bu hızlı gelişmeye yasal ve etik düzenlemeler aynı hızda ayak uyduramamaktadır. Hasta veya sağlıklı gönüllülerin kişisel verilerinin kullanımı, bu veriler kullanılarak elde edilecek tesadüfi bilgilerin bundan faydalanacak kişilere ulaştırılmasının ve bu bilgiye göre tedavi ve/veya koruyucu hekimlik uygulamalarının nasıl değişeceği başlıca sorunlardır. Dezavantajlı grupların özellikle teknolojik erişimlerin kısıtlı olması nedeniyle YZ'nın kişiselleştirilmiş tıp alanında sağladığı gelişmelerden faydalanamamasına ve eşitsizliklerinin derinleşmesine neden olabilir. Sonuç olarak, klinik araştırmalarda YZ kullanımı her aşamada titizlikle ele alınması ve düzenlenmesi gereken çok sayıda sorunu barındırmaktadır., Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly being used in life sciences. While decreasing the time and cost to bring a new drug to market, AI will increase the efficacy, safety and accuracy of the new drug. The cost of clinical research will decrease and in turn, this will positively affect health economics. AI is being used in designing clinical trials, selecting study population, monitoring effectiveness and safety, data collection, and analysis. Use of personal data, handling the incidental findings, and informing the patients that will benefit from these findings, are some of the issues that AI use needs proper regulation and ethical approach. Moreover, limited access of vulnerable populations to technology may cause limited access of this population to the advantages of precision medicine that is highly evolved by AI, and increase inequalities profoundly. In conclusion, AI applications brings many problems that must be handled and regulated meticulously.

Yapay zekâ (YZ) hayatın tüm alanında olduğu gibi, gün geçtikçe artan hız ve kapsamda sağlık bilimlerinde de uygulanmaktadır. YZ doğru aday molekülünün hızlı, güvenli ve etkili biçimde hastaya ulaşma sürecini hızlandıracağı gibi, klinik araştırma harcamalarını da azaltacak, dolaylı olarak bu sağlık ekonomisine de yansıyacaktır. YZ, klinik araştırma tasarımı, doğru araştırma popülasyonunun seçimi, ilaç etkililik ve güvenliliğinin izlenmesi, veri toplama ve analizi gibi araştırmanın birçok basamağında kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Fakat, bu hızlı gelişmeye yasal ve etik düzenlemeler aynı hızda ayak uyduramamaktadır. Hasta veya sağlıklı gönüllülerin kişisel verilerinin kullanımı, bu veriler kullanılarak elde edilecek tesadüfi bilgilerin bundan faydalanacak kişilere ulaştırılmasının ve bu bilgiye göre tedavi ve/veya koruyucu hekimlik uygulamalarının nasıl değişeceği başlıca sorunlardır. Dezavantajlı grupların özellikle teknolojik erişimlerin kısıtlı olması nedeniyle YZ'nın kişiselleştirilmiş tıp alanında sağladığı gelişmelerden faydalanamamasına ve eşitsizliklerinin derinleşmesine neden olabilir. Sonuç olarak, klinik araştırmalarda YZ kullanımı her aşamada titizlikle ele alınması ve düzenlenmesi gereken çok sayıda sorunu barındırmaktadır., Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly being used in life sciences. While decreasing the time and cost to bring a new drug to market, AI will increase the efficacy, safety and accuracy of the new drug. The cost of clinical research will decrease and in turn, this will positively affect health economics. AI is being used in designing clinical trials, selecting study population, monitoring effectiveness and safety, data collection, and analysis. Use of personal data, handling the incidental findings, and informing the patients that will benefit from these findings, are some of the issues that AI use needs proper regulation and ethical approach. Moreover, limited access of vulnerable populations to technology may cause limited access of this population to the advantages of precision medicine that is highly evolved by AI, and increase inequalities profoundly. In conclusion, AI applications brings many problems that must be handled and regulated meticulously.

BACKGROUND: Animal models of human diseases are often used in biomedical research in place of human subjects. However, results obtained by animal models may fail to hold true for humans. One way of addressing this problem is to make animal models more similar to humans by placing human tissue into animal models, rendering them chimeric. Since technical and ethical limitations make neurological disorders difficult to study in humans, chimeric models with human neural tissue could help advance our understanding of neuropathophysiology.MAIN BODY: In this article, we examine whether the introduction of human neural tissue and any consequent cognitive change is relevant to the way we ought to treat chimeras. We argue that changes in cognitive abilities are morally relevant to the extent that they increase the capacities that affect the moral status of any entity, including awareness, autonomy, and sociability. We posit that no being, regardless of species, should be treated in a way that is incommensurate with its moral status. Finally, we propose a framework that can be used to guide ethical assessment of research involving chimeras with advanced cognitive capacities.CONCLUSION: We advance this framework as a useful tool for bringing relevant considerations to the forefront for those considering the ethical merit of proposed chimeric research. In doing so, we examine concepts relevant to the question of how any entity may be treated, including moral status, dignity, and capacities.

The emerging field of synthetic biology, the (re-)designing and construction of biological parts, devices and systems for useful purposes, may simultaneously resolve some issues and raise others. In order to develop applications robustly and in the public interest, it is important to organize reflexive strategies of assessment and engagement in early stages of development. Against this backdrop, initiatives related to the concept of Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) have also appeared. This paper describes such an initiative: the construction of future scenarios to explore the plausibility and desirability of potential synthetic biology innovations. We guided teams of synthetic biology students who participated in the large international Genetically Engineered Machines (iGEM) competition, in constructing scenarios aimed at exploring the plausibility and desirability of potential synthetic biology innovations. In this paper we aim to examine to what extent, and how, constructing such future scenarios contributes to RRI. In order to do so, we conducted observations and interviews to understand what kind of learning and reflection was promoted by constructing the scenarios in terms of four dimensions, which are discussed prominently in the literature on RRI: anticipation, inclusion, reflexivity and responsiveness. While we focus on how constructing future scenarios can contribute to strengthening RRI at a project (and individual) level, we also consider how far our experiment may foster RRI in the iGEM competition in general, and perhaps even inspire constructive collaboration between 'social scientists' and 'natural scientists' in the context of larger scientific research programmes.

Medical publishing has become a pivotal aspect of all stages of career development in medicine in Belgium. Publication pressure is therefore present from the stage of the medical student to the level of the head of an academic medical service. This pressure represents a real danger to commit scientific misconduct, ranging from minor missteps to severe fraud. Recent surveys have shown that scientific misconduct and publication fraud represent an important problem in medical publishing, more than in other scientific fields, also in Belgium. Several factors may explain the increased risk of scientific misconduct in medical publishing. Recent national and international initiatives have emerged in order to better understand the problem of scientific misconduct and to optimize ethics in medical publishing. They aim to increase integrity and transparency at all levels of medical research and publishing, starting at the beginning of a career in medical school. The current review describes the ethical difficulties in medical publishing in Belgium, and offers possible solutions.

The emerging field of synthetic biology, the (re-)designing and construction of biological parts, devices and systems for useful purposes, may simultaneously resolve some issues and raise others. In order to develop applications robustly and in the public interest, it is important to organize reflexive strategies of assessment and engagement in early stages of development. Against this backdrop, initiatives related to the concept of Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) have also appeared. This paper describes such an initiative: the construction of future scenarios to explore the plausibility and desirability of potential synthetic biology innovations. We guided teams of synthetic biology students who participated in the large international Genetically Engineered Machines (iGEM) competition, in constructing scenarios aimed at exploring the plausibility and desirability of potential synthetic biology innovations. In this paper we aim to examine to what extent, and how, constructing such future scenarios contributes to RRI. In order to do so, we conducted observations and interviews to understand what kind of learning and reflection was promoted by constructing the scenarios in terms of four dimensions, which are discussed prominently in the literature on RRI: anticipation, inclusion, reflexivity and responsiveness. While we focus on how constructing future scenarios can contribute to strengthening RRI at a project (and individual) level, we also consider how far our experiment may foster RRI in the iGEM competition in general, and perhaps even inspire constructive collaboration between 'social scientists' and 'natural scientists' in the context of larger scientific research programmes.

Introduction: According to the Declaration of Helsinki and other guidelines, clinical studies should be approved by a research ethics committee and seek valid informed consent from the participants. Editors of medical journals are encouraged by the ICMJE and COPE to include requirements for these principles in the journal's instructions for authors. This study assessed the editorial policies of psychiatry journals regarding ethics review and informed consent. Methods and Findings: The information given on ethics review and informed consent and the mentioning of the ICMJE and COPE recommendations were assessed within author's instructions and online submission procedures of all 123 eligible psychiatry journals. While 54% and 58% of editorial policies required ethics review and informed consent, only 14% and 19% demanded the reporting of these issues in the manuscript. The TOP-10 psychiatry journals (ranked by impact factor) performed similarly in this regard. Conclusions: Only every second psychiatry journal adheres to the ICMJE's recommendation to inform authors about requirements for informed consent and ethics review. Furthermore, we argue that even the ICMJE's recommendations in this regard are insufficient, at least for ethically challenging clinical trials. At the same time, ideal scientific design sometimes even needs to be compromised for ethical reasons. We suggest that features of clinical studies that make them morally controversial, but not necessarily unethical, are analogous to methodological limitations and should thus be reported explicitly. Editorial policies as well as reporting guidelines such as CONSORT should be extended to support a meaningful reporting of ethical research.

Environmental health research is a relatively new scientific area with much interdisciplinary collaboration. Regardless of which human population is included in field studies (e.g., general population, working population, children, elderly, vulnerable sub-groups, etc.) their conduct must guarantee well acknowledged ethical principles. These principles, along with codes of conduct, are aimed at protecting study participants from research-related undesired effects and guarantee research integrity. A central role is attributed to the need for informing potential participants (i.e., recruited subjects who may be enrolled in a study), obtaining their written informed consent to participate, and making them aware of their right to refuse to participate at any time and for any reason. Data protection is also required and communication of study findings must respect participant's willingness to know or not know. This is specifically relevant for studies including biological markers and/or storing biological samples that might be analysed years later to tackle research objectives that were specified and communicated to participants at the time of recruitment or that may be formulated after consent was obtained.Integrity is central to environmental health research searching for causal relations. It requires open communication and trust and any violation (i.e., research misconduct, including fabrication or falsification of data, plagiarism, conflicting interests, etc.) may endanger the societal trust in the research community as well as jeopardize participation rates in field projects.

Environmental health research is a relatively new scientific area with much interdisciplinary collaboration. Regardless of which human population is included in field studies (e.g., general population, working population, children, elderly, vulnerable sub-groups, etc.) their conduct must guarantee well acknowledged ethical principles. These principles, along with codes of conduct, are aimed at protecting study participants from research-related undesired effects and guarantee research integrity. A central role is attributed to the need for informing potential participants (i.e., recruited subjects who may be enrolled in a study), obtaining their written informed consent to participate, and making them aware of their right to refuse to participate at any time and for any reason. Data protection is also required and communication of study findings must respect participant's willingness to know or not know. This is specifically relevant for studies including biological markers and/or storing biological samples that might be analysed years later to tackle research objectives that were specified and communicated to participants at the time of recruitment or that may be formulated after consent was obtained.Integrity is central to environmental health research searching for causal relations. It requires open communication and trust and any violation (i.e., research misconduct, including fabrication or falsification of data, plagiarism, conflicting interests, etc.) may endanger the societal trust in the research community as well as jeopardize participation rates in field projects.

This article addresses the issues related to the ethical justification for technology transfer in Africa. Two well held but conflicting points of views are examined and an alternative line of thought that seeks to resolve and reconcile the differences between the two view points is proposed. The necessity for developing countries to adapt to new technologies in order to escape the cycle of underdevelopment and economic subservience, and the more culturalist approach, that considers biotechnology to be a form of neocolonialism that local cultures must resist in order to preserve their community values. The conditions of a participative model based on the thoughts of Amartya Sen and Nancy Frazer are analyzed, and conclusions that could associate practical social justice and a negotiated model of development are drawn, bearing in mind the fact that this proposition, without being a mere utopia, remains a horizon of action for global bioethics and models of justice.

ReFacto is a recombinant B-domain-deleted, monoclonal antibody-purified, solvent-detergent-treated factor VIII (BDDrFVIII) with no albumin added to the final formulation. Although ReFacto has been shown to be bioequivalent to a plasma-derived FVIII product (Hemophil-M) in a randomized, crossover pharmacokinetic (PK) study, the comparability of ReFacto with the full-length (complete sequence) recombinant FVIII (FLrFVIII, Advate) product has not been previously examined in this manner. The primary objective of this study was to compare the PKs of ReFacto with those of Advate in patients with severe haemophilia A. This was a third-party unblinded, randomized, multicentre, two-period crossover PKs study of ReFacto and Advate in subjects with severe haemophilia A (FVIII:C <= 1%). Blood samples were collected over a 48-h period after i.v. administration of each of the FVIII products. FVIII:C was determined using the chromogenic substrate assay (CSA) in a central laboratory. The plasma FVIII:C PK parameters of ReFacto and Advate were determined using non-compartmental analysis. Bioequivalence was assessed on maximum plasma concentration (C-max) and the area under the plasma concentration vs. time curves (AUCs) using an ANOVA. The two products were judged to be equivalent if the 90% confidence limits of the ratio of the geometric mean values of C-max and AUCs fell within the interval of 80-125%. Results from this PKs comparison of two different rFVIII products, using chromogenic substrate assay to measure FVIII:C, showed that ReFacto and Advate are bioequivalent to each other.

International collaboration has undoubtedly played a key role in the extraordinary progress we have witnessed in some areas of oncology in recent years. It has allowed us, for instance, to design trials large enough to depict very small benefits, as well as high-quality trials in less incident types of cancer. For different reasons, developing countries have also shown growing interest in this international effort and have been participating in many international trials. However, the ever-growing costs of novel anti-cancer treatments and technologies have created unprecedented difficulties for health economies in developing countries. Although the issue of individual benefit for patients must also be taken into account, the actual benefit for their society may be minimal. This paper discusses the ethics of including patients from non-developed countries in clinical trials evaluating the role of treatments that are unlikely to be made available to them after the trial because of prohibitive costs. Upfront arrangements ensuring post-trial access to interventions that have been proven successful might be the best alternative to exclusion from the research., Journal Article, SCOPUS: ar.j, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

International collaboration has undoubtedly played a key role in the extraordinary progress we have witnessed in some areas of oncology in recent years. It has allowed us, for instance, to design trials large enough to depict very small benefits, as well as high-quality trials in less incident types of cancer. For different reasons, developing countries have also shown growing interest in this international effort and have been participating in many international trials. However, the ever-growing costs of novel anti-cancer treatments and technologies have created unprecedented difficulties for health economies in developing countries. Although the issue of individual benefit for patients must also be taken into account, the actual benefit for their society may be minimal. This paper discusses the ethics of including patients from non-developed countries in clinical trials evaluating the role of treatments that are unlikely to be made available to them after the trial because of prohibitive costs. Upfront arrangements ensuring post-trial access to interventions that have been proven successful might be the best alternative to exclusion from the research., Journal Article, SCOPUS: ar.j, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

This article reviews the current understanding of the explanation of socioeconomic inequalities in health in industrialised countries and then tries to determine where genetic factors could fit into explanatory schemes. It focuses on the explanation of socioeconomic inequalities in frequency of the main health problems of middle and old age.