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We report the results of investigations 2010 through 2023 of hymenopteran parasitoids associated with gall midges in Europe. A total of 242 collections of gall midges were made, from each of which one to several parasitoid species emerged, resulting in ca. 200 recorded parasitoid species and 267 host-parasitoid interaction records. The parasitoid families involved were Eulophidae (63 species), Platygastridae (56 species), Torymidae (34 species), Pteromalidae (31 species), Ceraphronidae (5 species), Eupelmidae (4 species), Eurytomidae (2 species) and Encyrtidae (1 species). As many as 159 interactions are reported for the first time, significantly enlarging our knowledge of gall midge – parasitoid interactions on the species level. Even more interesting, 51 host records are for parasitoid species for which no host was previously known. Similarly, 28 species of gall midge are reported as host to named parasitoids for the first time. Additionally, 91 parasitoid records were the first for the country in question. Differences between the rearing methods applied and their suitability for recording species with contrasting life histories, are discussed.

We report the results of investigations 2010 through 2023 of hymenopteran parasitoids associated with gall midges in Europe. A total of 242 collections of gall midges were made, from each of which one to several parasitoid species emerged, resulting in ca. 200 recorded parasitoid species and 267 host-parasitoid interaction records. The parasitoid families involved were Eulophidae (63 species), Platygastridae (56 species), Torymidae (34 species), Pteromalidae (31 species), Ceraphronidae (5 species), Eupelmidae (4 species), Eurytomidae (2 species) and Encyrtidae (1 species). As many as 159 interactions are reported for the first time, significantly enlarging our knowledge of gall midge – parasitoid interactions on the species level. Even more interesting, 51 host records are for parasitoid species for which no host was previously known. Similarly, 28 species of gall midge are reported as host to named parasitoids for the first time. Additionally, 91 parasitoid records were the first for the country in question. Differences between the rearing methods applied and their suitability for recording species with contrasting life histories, are discussed.

Tokom 2017.godine na području Beograda u štitovima male smrčine štitaste vaši, Physokermes hemicryphus (Hemiptera: Coccidae), koja se razvija na biljkama iz rodova Picea i Abies, prvi put je registrovano istovremeno prisustvo larve predatora Anthribus nebulosus (Coleoptera: Anthribidae) i larvi parazitoida Pseudorhopus testaceus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). A. nebulosus je predator većeg broja vrsta iz familije Coccidae i smatra se najefikasnijom vrstom entomofaga u smanjenju brojnosti populacija Ph. hemicryphus. Celokupno razviće predatora odvija se ispod štita vaši, gde se larve hrane jajima vaši. P. testaceus je poliembrionijski parazitoid čiji je ciklus razvića sinhronizovan sa Ph. hemicryphus. Ženke parazitoida polažu jaja u larve prvog stupnja domaćina, ne ometajući njihov dalji rast i metamorfozu, pa imaga osica eklodiraju iz ženki štitastih vaši. Obe vrste entomofaga su u stranoj i domaćoj literature registrovane kao značajni prirodni neprijatelji male smrčine štitaste vaši, pri čemu je ovom prilikom utvrñeno da se larva A. nebulosus, osim jajima štitastih vaši, hrani i larvama i lutkama poliembrionijskog parazitoida P. testaceus. Imajući u vidu različit način ishrane larvi, cilj istraživanja bio je da se utvrdi uticaj hrane na variranje morfoloških karakteristika i mase tela imaga A. nebulosus. U cilju gajenja A. nebulosus štitovi vaši sa jajima i štitovi vaši sa larvama i lutkama parazitoidne osice, u kojima se razvijala larva predatora, su odvojeni u pojedinačne staklene flakone, nakon čega je praćena eklozija imaga. Analiza morfoloških karaktera (dužina pokrioca, širina pokrioca, dužina buta) kao i merenja mase tela obavljena su na po 16 jedinki predatora pomoću softverskog paketa IM1000 (Leica, Germany) u laboratoriji Katedre za entomologiju i poljoprivrednu zoologiju Poljoprivrednog fakulteta u Beogradu. Utvrñeno je da način ishrane larvi A. nebulosus utiče na morfološke karakteristike imaga i da postoje statistički značajne razlike izmeñu svih ispitivan

Four aphelinid and one encyrtid parasitoid species (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) were collected from Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Targioni-Tozzetti) infesting twigs and stems of Japanese plum tree (Prunus salicina Lindl.) in a survey conducted in 2020 in South Korea. These were identified as Aphytis proclia (Walker), Encarsia berlesei (Howard), Marietta carnesi (Howard), Pteroptrix orientalis (Silvestri) (Aphelinidae) and Arrhenophagus chionaspidis Aurivillius (Encyrtidae). In this paper, the list of parasitoid species of P. pentagona that occur on Japanese plum trees in South Korea is updated and a brief diagnosis and photographs of each species are provided.

Improved methods of integrated pest management of the pear psyllid Cacopsylla pyri (L.), the primary pest of pear in Europe and North America, are needed. Trechnites insidiosus (Crawford) is the most abundant parasitoid of C. pyri in pear orchards, where it is present early in the psyllid infestation period. However, little is known about its general biology, interaction with its host and potential as a control agent. The objective of this laboratory study was to evaluate the behaviour of a specialist parasitoid when presented with different larval instars of C. pyri, and assess the quality of the next generation of parasitoids. T. insidiosus was able to insert its ovipositor into all host instars. However, the fourth instar of the host appeared to be the most suitable in terms of behavioural acceptance, time spent walking, antennal activity and progeny development (mummy formation, development time and tibial length). In addition, we report a low frequency of host-feeding behaviour by this parasitoid. From a biological control perspective, we suggest that favouring T. insidiosus, either through mass releases or conservation of naturally present populations, when the first generation of psyllids reach the fourth instar, would maximize the chance of controlling psyllid populations in pear orchards.

Fourteen species of Chalcidoidea (Encyrtidae, Eulophidae, Eupelmidae, Eurytomidae, Pteromalidae and Torymidae) were obtained from the common reed, Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. (Poaceae) in the Urmia region, in the northwest of Iran. Among these species, two new species of Pteromalidae are described hereafter: Norbanus persicus Lotfalizadeh & Rasplus sp. nov. and Stenomalina delvarei Lotfalizadeh & Rasplus sp. nov. Anagyrus near alienus Japoshvili, 2002, Asitus sp., Cheiloneurus paralia (Walker, 1837), Echthroplexiella obscura (Hoffer, 1952), Neococcidencyrtus poutiersi (Mercet, 1922) (all Encyrtidae), Aprostocetus orithyia (Walker, 1839) (Eulophidae), Eupelmus phragmitis Erdös, 1955 (Eupelmidae), Aximopsis deserticola (Zerova, 2004) comb. nov., Tetramesa phragmitis (Erdös, 1952) and Tetramesa sp. (all Eurytomidae), Homoporus febriculosus (Girault, 1917) (Pteromalidae) and Torymus arundinis (Walker, 1833) (Torymidae) were also obtained from our laboratory rearing. Nine of these species are recorded for the first time from Iran.

Fourteen species of Chalcidoidea (Encyrtidae, Eulophidae, Eupelmidae, Eurytomidae, Pteromalidae and Torymidae) were obtained from the common reed, Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. (Poaceae) in the Urmia region, in the northwest of Iran. Among these species, two new species of Pteromalidae are described hereafter: Norbanus persicus Lotfalizadeh & Rasplus sp. nov. and Stenomalina delvarei Lotfalizadeh & Rasplus sp. nov. Anagyrus near alienus Japoshvili, 2002, Asitus sp., Cheiloneurus paralia (Walker, 1837), Echthroplexiella obscura (Hoffer, 1952), Neococcidencyrtus poutiersi (Mercet, 1922) (all Encyrtidae), Aprostocetus orithyia (Walker, 1839) (Eulophidae), Eupelmus phragmitis Erdös, 1955 (Eupelmidae), Aximopsis deserticola (Zerova, 2004) comb. nov., Tetramesa phragmitis (Erdös, 1952) and Tetramesa sp. (all Eurytomidae), Homoporus febriculosus (Girault, 1917) (Pteromalidae) and Torymus arundinis (Walker, 1833) (Torymidae) were also obtained from our laboratory rearing. Nine of these species are recorded for the first time from Iran.

A survey of the parasitoids associated with Acanthococcus lagerstroemiae (Kuwana) (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae) in the Republic of Korea in 2014 resulted in the documentation of one species of Aphelinidae, Marietta picta (Andre), and two species of Encyrtidae, Metaphycus eriococci (Timberlake) and Zaomma eriococci (Ferrière). Of these, M. eriococci and Z. eriococci are newly recorded from Korea. In addition, one species of encyrtid is newly recognized as a parasitoid associated with A. lagerstroemiae from Korea. In this paper, the list of parasitoid species of A. lagerstroemiae that occur in Korea is updated and a brief diagnosis and photographs of these species are provided.

The tritrophic relationships among the soft scale Physokermes hemicryphus (Dalman, 1826) (Hemiptera), the polyembryonic parasitoid Pseudorhopus testaceus (Ratzeburg, 1848) (Hymenoptera) and the predator Anthribus nebulosus Forster, 1770 (Coleoptera) is documented and reported for the first time. In Belgrade region (Serbia), in scale insects P. hemicryphus, the simultaneous presence of P. testaceus parasitoid larvae and A. nebulosus larvae has been registered. Larvae of A. nebulosus, apart from scales' eggs, also feed on larvae of parasitoids P. testaceus. Competitive interactions between these two species, which are natural enemies of P. hemicryphus, have not been known until now.

The aim of this research was to study the diversity of jumping plant-lice parasitoids and to investigate their potential in biological control applicable to cultivated and ornamental plants. Thirteen species from six genera of encyrtid wasps (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea, Encyrtidae) were reared from 24 species of jumping plant-lice (Hemiptera, Psylloidea) in Serbia. A total of 689 encyrtid wasps were collected since 2003 from 51 localities, reared from hosts. The richest genera are Psyllaephagus with four species (P. belanensis (Hoffer), P. fulvipes Erdos, P. procerus Mercet and Psyllaephagus sp.) and Syrphophagus with three species (S. aphidivorus (Mayr), S. taeniatus (Forster) and S. ariantes (Walker)). The most common species, comprising about half of the reared specimens, is Prionomitus mitratus (Dalman). Eight species are new to Serbia: Microterys annulatus (Erdos, 1957), Prionomitus tiliaris (Dalman), Psyllaephagus belanensis, P. fulvipes, P. procerus, Sectiliclava cleone (Walker), Syrphophagus ariantes and Trechnites flavipes (Mercet). Psyllaephagus fulvipes was reared from the nymphs of Craspedolepta conspersa (Low), the only known host of this species so far. In the present study, 27 new host associations were found.

The tritrophic relationships among the soft scale Physokermes hemicryphus (Dalman, 1826) (Hemiptera), the polyembryonic parasitoid Pseudorhopus testaceus (Ratzeburg, 1848) (Hymenoptera) and the predator Anthribus nebulosus Forster, 1770 (Coleoptera) is documented and reported for the first time. In Belgrade region (Serbia), in scale insects P. hemicryphus, the simultaneous presence of P. testaceus parasitoid larvae and A. nebulosus larvae has been registered. Larvae of A. nebulosus, apart from scales' eggs, also feed on larvae of parasitoids P. testaceus. Competitive interactions between these two species, which are natural enemies of P. hemicryphus, have not been known until now.

Through this survey, four species of aphelinid, one species of encyrtid, and one species of signiphorid wasp (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) were collected and identified as follows: Aphytis japonicus DeBach and Azim, Encarsia berlesei (Howard), Marietta carnesi (Howard), Pteroptrix sp. 2, Arrhenophagus chionaspidis Aurivillius, and Chartocerus subaenus (Förster). Among these, C. subaenus is recorded newly from the Korean parasitoid fauna. Also, three species of aphelinids and one species of signiphorid are newly added as parasitic wasps associated with Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli (Cooley) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) from Korea. In this paper, the list of parasitoid species of P. cockerelli that occur in Korea is updated and a brief diagnosis and photographs of these species are provided.

Aphids represent a major problem for many plant species, due to their ability to serve as pathogen vectors; the use of parasitoids as biological control agents might be a suitable option for long term control of their populations. The objective of this study was to prepare a taxonomic key in order to identify parasitoids and hyperparasitoids of aphids obtained in Costa Rica. In total, during 2008 to 2015, 3009 hymenopteran parasitoids were reared from 25 species of aphids, 2832 (94%) were primary parasitoids and 175 (6%) were hyperparasitoids. A taxonomic key was made for the identification of nine species of primary parasitoids, Braconidae-Aphidiinae, Aphelinidae, Eulophidae, and six species of hyperparasitoids in five families. In addition, the genus Quadrictonus (Aphidiinae), was included in the key and was reported for the first time in this study in Costa Rica, Los áfidos representan una problemática para muchas especies de plantas, debido a que son vectores de múltiples patógenos; el control biológico mediante el uso de parasitoides es una opción permanente de control de sus poblaciones. El objetivo de esta investigación fue elaborar una clave dicotómica para identificar parasitoides e hiperparasitoides de áfidos recolectados en Costa Rica. Se obtuvo desde el año 2008 hasta 2015 un total de 3009 parasitoides himenópteros de 25 especies de áfidos, de los cuales 2832 (94%) se clasificaron como parasitoides primarios y 175 (6%) como hiperparasitoides. Se elaboró una clave de identificación para nueve especies de parasitoides primarios Braconidae-Aphidiinae, Aphelinidae, Eulophidae y cinco familias de hiperparasitoides comprendidos en seis especies. Además, se incluye en la clave el género Quadrictonus (Aphidiinae), el cual se registró por primera vez para Costa Rica en este estudio.

Aphids represent a major problem for many plant species, due to their ability to serve as pathogen vectors; the use of parasitoids as biological control agents might be a suitable option for long term control of their populations. The objective of this study was to prepare a taxonomic key in order to identify parasitoids and hyperparasitoids of aphids obtained in Costa Rica. In total, during 2008 to 2015, 3009 hymenopteran parasitoids were reared from 25 species of aphids, 2832 (94%) were primary parasitoids and 175 (6%) were hyperparasitoids. A taxonomic key was made for the identification of nine species of primary parasitoids, Braconidae-Aphidiinae, Aphelinidae, Eulophidae, and six species of hyperparasitoids in five families. In addition, the genus Quadrictonus (Aphidiinae), was included in the key and was reported for the first time in this study in Costa Rica, Los áfidos representan una problemática para muchas especies de plantas, debido a que son vectores de múltiples patógenos; el control biológico mediante el uso de parasitoides es una opción permanente de control de sus poblaciones. El objetivo de esta investigación fue elaborar una clave dicotómica para identificar parasitoides e hiperparasitoides de áfidos recolectados en Costa Rica. Se obtuvo desde el año 2008 hasta 2015 un total de 3009 parasitoides himenópteros de 25 especies de áfidos, de los cuales 2832 (94%) se clasificaron como parasitoides primarios y 175 (6%) como hiperparasitoides. Se elaboró una clave de identificación para nueve especies de parasitoides primarios Braconidae-Aphidiinae, Aphelinidae, Eulophidae y cinco familias de hiperparasitoides comprendidos en seis especies. Además, se incluye en la clave el género Quadrictonus (Aphidiinae), el cual se registró por primera vez para Costa Rica en este estudio.

Pseudococcus comstocki (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is a mealybug species native to Eastern Asia and present as an invasive pest in northern Italy and southern France since the start of the century. It infests apple and pear trees, grapevines and some ornamental trees. Biocontrol programmes against this pest proved successful in central Asia and North America in the second half of the 20th century. In this study, we investigated possible biocontrol agents against P. comstocki, with the aim of developing a biocontrol programme in France. We carried out systematic DNA-barcoding at each step in the search for a specialist parasitoid. First we characterised the French target populations of P. comstocki. We then identified the parasitoids attacking P. comstocki in France. Finally, we searched for foreign mealybug populations identified a priori as P. comstocki and surveyed their hymenopteran parasitoids. Three mealybug species (P. comstocki, P. viburni and P. cryptus) were identified during the survey, together with at least 16 different parasitoid taxa. We selected candidate biological control agent populations for use against P. comstocki in France, from the species Allotropa burrelli (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) and Acerophagus malinus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). The coupling of molecular and morphological characterisation for both pests and natural enemies facilitated the programme development and the rejection of unsuitable or generalist parasitoids.

Pseudococcus comstocki (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is a mealybug species native to Eastern Asia and present as an invasive pest in northern Italy and southern France since the start of the century. It infests apple and pear trees, grapevines and some ornamental trees. Biocontrol programmes against this pest proved successful in central Asia and North America in the second half of the 20th century. In this study, we investigated possible biocontrol agents against P. comstocki, with the aim of developing a biocontrol programme in France. We carried out systematic DNA-barcoding at each step in the search for a specialist parasitoid. First we characterised the French target populations of P. comstocki. We then identified the parasitoids attacking P. comstocki in France. Finally, we searched for foreign mealybug populations identified a priori as P. comstocki and surveyed their hymenopteran parasitoids. Three mealybug species (P. comstocki, P. viburni and P. cryptus) were identified during the survey, together with at least 16 different parasitoid taxa. We selected candidate biological control agent populations for use against P. comstocki in France, from the species Allotropa burrelli (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) and Acerophagus malinus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). The coupling of molecular and morphological characterisation for both pests and natural enemies facilitated the programme development and the rejection of unsuitable or generalist parasitoids.

Phenacoccus peruvianus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is an invasive mealybug of Neotropical origin, first reported in the Mediterranean Basin in Almeria (Spain) in 1999. In the following years the mealybug spread into other Mediterranean regions and has also been recorded in Portugal and France, as well as in Sicily, Corsica and the Balearic Islands. Phenacoccus peruvianus is a polyphagous species and damages economically important ornamental plants. Since this was a relatively unknown species, during the first years of invasion, the mealybug was managed by the application of chemical treatments with wide-spectrum pesticides. However, the latest European directive on pesticide use reduces or even forbids pesticide applications in a wide range of urban green areas, giving significant priority to biological control (European Parliament and Council 2009). This thesis sets the basis for introducing biological control into a P. peruvianus management program in urban landscapes, focusing on its characterization, sampling, biology and control. In order to facilitate the identification of this and other mealybug species, we characterised 33 mealybug populations infesting crops and ornamental plants in Eastern Spain, using a combination of molecular and morphological techniques. This characterisation led to the identification of ten mealybug species and made routine identification possible through DNA sequencing or the use of derived species-specific molecular tools. The sequences obtained also add to the phylogenetic knowledge of the Pseudococcidae family and provide insight into the invasion history of some species. Phenacoccus peruvianus populations were high in bougainvillea plants during spring and summer, declining to almost undetectable levels in autumn and winter. The mealybug was mainly found in bracts and there were no significant migrations between plant strata. Phenacoccus peruvianus showed a high aggregated distribution on bracts, leaves and twigs. We recommend a

[EN] Models based on sex allocation theory predict that when the fitness gains from larger size differ between male and female offspring, mothers should produce the sex that will offer the greatest investment return. Behavioral studies on parasitoid wasps have confirmed predictions of models, which additionally have practical implications because of their relevance in biological control. We investigated how a parasitoid attacking a scale insect matches theoretical model predictions in a 2-year field study. As predicted by Charnov s host quality model, mothers laid female eggs in hosts above a threshold size. This threshold was absolute, i.e. independent of the host size distribution, independently of the sampling site and date. Further laboratory assays confirmed field results for at least one parasitoid generation and, moreover, excluded the possibility that the observed behavior was a consequence of immature mortality. By comparing the characteristics of our system with others, we hypothesize that this short-term absolute threshold might be favored in polyphagous parasitoids that attack multivoltine hosts. We propose three measures to mitigate the negative implications of this sex allocation behavior in classical and augmentative biological control programs.

Phenacoccus peruvianus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is an invasive mealybug of Neotropical origin, first reported in the Mediterranean Basin in Almeria (Spain) in 1999. In the following years the mealybug spread into other Mediterranean regions and has also been recorded in Portugal and France, as well as in Sicily, Corsica and the Balearic Islands. Phenacoccus peruvianus is a polyphagous species and damages economically important ornamental plants. Since this was a relatively unknown species, during the first years of invasion, the mealybug was managed by the application of chemical treatments with wide-spectrum pesticides. However, the latest European directive on pesticide use reduces or even forbids pesticide applications in a wide range of urban green areas, giving significant priority to biological control (European Parliament and Council 2009). This thesis sets the basis for introducing biological control into a P. peruvianus management program in urban landscapes, focusing on its characterization, sampling, biology and control. In order to facilitate the identification of this and other mealybug species, we characterised 33 mealybug populations infesting crops and ornamental plants in Eastern Spain, using a combination of molecular and morphological techniques. This characterisation led to the identification of ten mealybug species and made routine identification possible through DNA sequencing or the use of derived species-specific molecular tools. The sequences obtained also add to the phylogenetic knowledge of the Pseudococcidae family and provide insight into the invasion history of some species. Phenacoccus peruvianus populations were high in bougainvillea plants during spring and summer, declining to almost undetectable levels in autumn and winter. The mealybug was mainly found in bracts and there were no significant migrations between plant strata. Phenacoccus peruvianus showed a high aggregated distribution on bracts, leaves and twigs. We recommend a

[EN] Models based on sex allocation theory predict that when the fitness gains from larger size differ between male and female offspring, mothers should produce the sex that will offer the greatest investment return. Behavioral studies on parasitoid wasps have confirmed predictions of models, which additionally have practical implications because of their relevance in biological control. We investigated how a parasitoid attacking a scale insect matches theoretical model predictions in a 2-year field study. As predicted by Charnov s host quality model, mothers laid female eggs in hosts above a threshold size. This threshold was absolute, i.e. independent of the host size distribution, independently of the sampling site and date. Further laboratory assays confirmed field results for at least one parasitoid generation and, moreover, excluded the possibility that the observed behavior was a consequence of immature mortality. By comparing the characteristics of our system with others, we hypothesize that this short-term absolute threshold might be favored in polyphagous parasitoids that attack multivoltine hosts. We propose three measures to mitigate the negative implications of this sex allocation behavior in classical and augmentative biological control programs.

The encyrtid species, Lohiella longicornis (Noyes & Hayat) is reported for the first time in India and the male of the species is described. A key to the Indian species of Lohiella is provided along with host details.

Phenacoccus peruvianus Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is a new invasive mealybug that causes important damages in ornamental plants in urban landscapes and nurseries in Southern Europe. Recently, a new species of genus Acerophagus Smith (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) has been recorded as the main parasitoid of P. peruvianus in Spain, displacing the native parasitoid Leptomastix epona Walker (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). In this work, we have determined some traits of the reproductive and feeding strategies of Acerophagus sp.: fecundity, immature developmental time, host instar suitability, and preference when parasitizing P. peruvianus, and the effect of natural occurring sugar sources on adult longevity. Acerophagus sp. egg load reached its maximum when it was 5 days old. Second and third nymphal instars and adults were suitable for parasitism and immature development (efficient encapsulation was low). Immature development lasted between 20 and 22 days. Acerophagus sp. developed as a solitary parasitoid in the second instar and as a gregarious parasitoid in older instars (2-4 parasitoids per host). All the emerged offspring were females. Acerophagus sp. always preferred older instars when different host instars were available. Finally, adults lived more than 20 days when fed on honey, but they lived fewer than 3 days when fed on naturally occurring sugar sources (host honeydew and host plant flowers, Bougainvillea glabra). The consequences of these characteristics on biological control and parasitoid rearing are discussed.

Phenacoccus peruvianus Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is a new invasive mealybug that causes important damages in ornamental plants in urban landscapes and nurseries in Southern Europe. Recently, a new species of genus Acerophagus Smith (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) has been recorded as the main parasitoid of P. peruvianus in Spain, displacing the native parasitoid Leptomastix epona Walker (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). In this work, we have determined some traits of the reproductive and feeding strategies of Acerophagus sp.: fecundity, immature developmental time, host instar suitability, and preference when parasitizing P. peruvianus, and the effect of natural occurring sugar sources on adult longevity. Acerophagus sp. egg load reached its maximum when it was 5 days old. Second and third nymphal instars and adults were suitable for parasitism and immature development (efficient encapsulation was low). Immature development lasted between 20 and 22 days. Acerophagus sp. developed as a solitary parasitoid in the second instar and as a gregarious parasitoid in older instars (2-4 parasitoids per host). All the emerged offspring were females. Acerophagus sp. always preferred older instars when different host instars were available. Finally, adults lived more than 20 days when fed on honey, but they lived fewer than 3 days when fed on naturally occurring sugar sources (host honeydew and host plant flowers, Bougainvillea glabra). The consequences of these characteristics on biological control and parasitoid rearing are discussed.

Metaphycus flavus (Howard) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) is a facultatively gregarious endoparasitoid of soft scales (Hemiptera: Coccidae). When it develops in superparasitised hosts, the larvae often attack and consume brood mates six or more days post oviposition. Under our laboratory conditions (25±1°C and 14 hours of light followed by 18±1°C and ten hours of darkness in 50-70% R.H.), M. flavus eggs hatched three days after oviposition. Measurements of the mandibles and tentorium indicate there are four larval instars, and M. flavus reaches the fourth instar by day six post oviposition, and pupates on day eight. Thus, cannibalism among M. flavus larvae occurs during the fourth instar. During this instar, M. flavus larvae separate from their attachment to the scale cuticle, to which they were tethered by a respiratory structure during the previous three larval instars. Once detached, they are free to move within the scale, which increases the probability of larval encounters and aggressive behaviours. Moreover, the mandibles of the fourth instar are better adapted for fighting than are those of the first three larval instars, since they are larger and more sclerotized. The cranium and mouthparts of M. flavus have four different types of sensory organs, some of which are almost certainly olfactory, an unexpected function for a larva that presumably is surrounded by an aqueous medium where gustatory sensilla would seem to be more appropriate. The cranium also bears two pairs of what appear to be secretory pores. Copyright © 2011 Cambridge University Press.

The phenology of Protopulvinaria pyriformis (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) and its parasitoid complex were studied on laurel Laurus nobilis L. in urban green spaces of Eastern Spain from March 2008 to January 2010. P. pyriformis is bivoltine, gravid females peaked on spring and fall and the 2nd and 3rd instars were present throughout the year. The natural parasitoid community of P. pyriformis consisted of three primary parasitoids and four facultative hyperparasitoid species. Metaphycus helvolus (Compere) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) accounted for 98% of the parasitoids recovered. Although M. helvolus parasitized all the scale instars, it attacked P. pyriformis mostly at the end of the spring, when scales were larger. M. helvolus behaved as a solitary parasitoid and its secondary sex ratio was male biased when it parasitized the 2nd instar. Its secondary sex ratio became female biased when it parasitized scales larger than 1.1 mm. M. helvolus behaved as a facultative gregarious parasitoid and its secondary sex ratio was always female biased (0.3 males per scale) when it parasitized the 3rd instar and the adults. The number of eggs allocated per host, as well as the number of parasitoids that emerged, increased with scale size. Mostly, broods of two to four parasitoids emerged from these scales. M. helvolus showed inverse host density dependence, parasitism decreased as the number of scales per leaf increased. The implications of these results on the biological control of this and other soft scales are discussed.

New distribution and host records of Chalcidoidea from various parts of India are listed. Eupelmas auiipodu Ashmead is recorded for the first time from the Indian subcontinent. Ischiodou scutettaris (F.) is a new host record for Syrpliopliagus aeruginosas (Dalman). In ail, 14 species including eight pteromalids, viz., Dinarmiis basaltis (Rondani), Merismomorpha uiiuuta Sureshan, Mesopolobus minutus Sureshan & Narendran, Oricoruna arcolensis (Mani & Kurian), Pachynenron aeneum Masi, Spliegigaster reticulata Sureshan & Narendran, Syutomopus carinaliis Sureshan & Narendran and Tricliomalopsis thekkadieusis Sureshan & Narendran; three encyrtids, viz., Cerchysius laticeps Kerrich, Homalotylus ferrierei Hayat et al., and Syrpliopliagus aeruginosas (Dalman); one culophid, Euderus albitarsis (Zetterstedt); and two eupelmids, viz., Aiiastatus acherontiae Narayanan et al. and Eupelmiis antipoda Ashmead, are recorded from different parts of India and the details are provided.

The lobate lac scale Paratachardina pseudolobata Kondo & Gullan (Kerriidae) is a polyphagous pest of woody plants in Florida (U.S.A.) the Bahamas, Christmas Island (Australia) and it has been reported from Cuba. Its recent appearance as a pest in these places indicates that this scale is introduced; however, its native range is unknown. Until 2006, this pest species was identified mistakenly as Paratachardina lobata (Chamberlin) [now P. silvestri (Mahdihassan)], which is native to India and Sri Lanka. Quarantine laboratory acceptance trials with Indian P. silvestri parasitoids indicated a strong immune response from P. pseudolobata. Gregarious development of encyrtid wasps was the only observed parasitism, but parasitization levels were below 3%. Identification of the native range of P. pseudolobata would facilitate the search for natural enemies better adapted to the scale. Sequence data from the D2–D3 region of the nuclear large subunit ribosomal RNA gene (LSU rRNA, 28S) and the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase I (COI) distinguished P. pseudolobata from the morphologically similar species P. silvestri and P. mahdihassani Kondo & Gullan, and showed P. pseudolobata to be more closely related to these Indotropical species than to an Australian species of Paratachardina Balachowsky. Paratachardina pseudolobata was genetically uniform throughout its exotic range, consistent with a single geographic origin, although lack of variation in these genes is not unusual for scale insects. Molecular identification of morphologically similar Paratachardina species was possible using the D2–D3 region of 28S, despite its length variation, suggesting that this gene region might be suitable as a non-COI barcoding gene for scale insects.

A total of 1893 Copidosoma floridanum (Ashmead), an egg-larval polyemhryonic encyrtid parasitoid, has been recorded on Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) in tomato from Tamil Nadu, India, for the first time. The brood size and sex-ratio of the parasitoid are discussed.

The species of Microterys Thomson from China are revised. Forty-three species are described and illustrated, of which 17 are new to science. Seventeen new species are described and illustrated, 26 species of the genus are revised and redescribed. The hosts of 33 species of the genus Microterys are recorded. A key to all known species of Chinese Microterys is added.

The species of Microterys Thomson from China are revised. Forty-three species are described and illustrated, of which 17 are new to science. Seventeen new species are described and illustrated, 26 species of the genus are revised and redescribed. The hosts of 33 species of the genus Microterys are recorded. A key to all known species of Chinese Microterys is added.

Free to read at publisher's site. Eggs of Amorbus obscuricornis (Westwood) and Gelonus tasmanicus (Le Guillou) (Hemiptera: Coreidae) are reported for the first time as being parasitised by the encyrtid parasitoid Xenoencyrtus hemipterus (Girault). This is the first record of an egg parasitoid attacking these species and is also the first record of the genus Xenoencyrtus Riek from Tasmania. Brief notes on parasitism under laboratory conditions are provided.

We examined brood sex ratios of an undetermined species of Copidosoma. Most broods (65%) were unisexual, with a greater proportion of female broods. Some mixed broods contained extremely small proportions of wasps of the opposite sex. Our results imply that the female-biased sex rations in this species cannot be explained by local mate competition theory.

[EN] The 184 species and subspecies of Encyrtidae described by MERCET (1916-1947) are discussed and where necessary lectotypes are designated. Four new generic, six new specific synonymies and eleven new combinations are proposed., [ES] Se estudian y discuten las 184 especies y subespecies de Encyrtidae descritas por MERCET (1916-1947). Como resultado se establecen cuatro nuevos géneros, seis nuevas sinonimias y once nuevas combinaciones de nombres, designándose también lectotipos cuando ha sido necesario.