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This study evaluates how recent tax law changes have affected small enterprises and makes recommendations for how to encourage their expansion and development. Small enterprises contribute significantly to economic expansion and create job possibilities. However, it might be difficult for them to navigate changes in tax policy. A mixed-methods approach is used in the study, which includes qualitative interviews with policymakers and tax specialists in addition to a quantitative survey of small business owners. According to the findings, small firms have experienced a mixed bag of effects from recent tax policy changes. This research study suggests that politicians adopt a more focused approach to tax policy, including increasing tax credits and deductions, streamlining tax laws and regulations, providing access to financial resources and business education, and other measures, in order to encourage their growth and success.

This study evaluates how recent tax law changes have affected small enterprises and makes recommendations for how to encourage their expansion and development. Small enterprises contribute significantly to economic expansion and create job possibilities. However, it might be difficult for them to navigate changes in tax policy. A mixed-methods approach is used in the study, which includes qualitative interviews with policymakers and tax specialists in addition to a quantitative survey of small business owners. According to the findings, small firms have experienced a mixed bag of effects from recent tax policy changes. This research study suggests that politicians adopt a more focused approach to tax policy, including increasing tax credits and deductions, streamlining tax laws and regulations, providing access to financial resources and business education, and other measures, in order to encourage their growth and success.

Aim To estimate whether large macroeconomic fluctuations in the 2000s affected inequalities in alcohol-related mortality in the Baltic countries and Finland. Design Longitudinal register-based follow-up study. Setting Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland. Participants General population in the 35–74 age group. Measurements Socioeconomic status was measured by the highest achieved educational level and was categorised using the International Standard Classification of Education 2011 as low (included categories 0–2), middle (3–4), and high (5–8). Educational inequalities in alcohol-related mortality in 2000–2003, 2004–2007, 2008–2011 and 2012–2015 were examined using census-linked longitudinal mortality data. We estimated age-standardised mortality rates and the relative and slope index of inequality. Findings Alcohol-related mortality increased in all countries in 2004–2007 except among Estonian women and decreased/remained the same from 2008 onward except among Latvian men. By 2012–2015 alcohol-related mortality was still higher than in 2000–2003 in Finland, Latvia and Lithuania (women only). Relative inequalities increased across the study period in all countries (significantly in Lithuania and Latvia). The 2004–2007 increase in relative inequalities was mostly driven by a larger mortality increase among the low educated, whereas in 2008–2011 and in 2012–2015 inequalities often increased because of a larger relative mortality decline among the high educated. However, these period changes in relative inequalities and between educational groups were often not statistically significant. Absolute inequalities were larger in 2012–2015 versus 2000–2003 in all countries except Estonia (decrease). Conclusion In the Baltic countries and Finland, alcohol-related mortality tended to increase faster among the low educated during a period of economic expansion (2004–2007) and decrease more among the high educated during a period of economic recession (2008–2011).

The need to establish long-term development models that allow overcoming structural problems and deficiencies that strengthen sovereignty and promote equality and social equity for Latin America, has been at the centre of political and academic debate in recent years. However, in recent times, an ongoing process of economic and territorial expansion generating territorial imbalances, major environmental problems and high social conflict has hindered the achievement of this great objective. This work seeks to evaluate which elements and factors represent the greatest obstacles to the consolidation of sovereign development models, at the same time that it discusses the effective domination of territories and re-sources by Latin American States and their true capacity to carry out territorial political management. Through a theoretical approach and a case analysis, the paper identifies various problems common to most countries, offers some considerations regarding the importance of improving territorial management as a strategy to strengthen State sovereignty; and pinpoints challenges in the way to build an overall vision for the region in the international context., La necesidad de establecer modelos de desarrollo de largo plazo que permitan superar problemáticas y deficiencias estructurales, que fortalezcan la soberanía y propicien la igualdad y la equidad social, ha estado en el centro del debate político y académico en los últimos años para América Latina. Sin embargo, en tiempos recientes se ha evidenciado un proceso de expansión económica y territorial que ha generado desequilibrios territoriales, grandes problemáticas ambientales y una elevada conflictividad social que han dificultado el alcance de este gran objetivo. El trabajo realizado propuso evaluar qué elemento y factores representan los mayores obstáculos para consolidar modelos de desarrollo soberanos, y al mismo tiempo discutir el efectivo dominio de los territorios y recursos de los Estados latinoamericanos y la capacidad verdadera de llevar adelante una gestión política territorial. A través de un abordaje teórico y un análisis de casos, los resultados alcanzados han permitido identificar diversas problemáticas comunes a la mayoría de los países, establecer algunas consideraciones respecto a la importancia de mejorar la gestión territorial como estrategia para fortalecer la soberanía de cada Estado; y plantear algunos desafíos a futuro para construir una visión de conjunto para la región frente al contexto internacional., A necessidade de estabelecer modelos de desenvolvimento de longo prazo que permitam superar problemas e deficiências estruturais, que fortaleçam a soberania e promovam a igualdade e a eqüidade social, esteve no centro do debate político e acadêmico nos últimos anos para a América Latina. No entanto, nos últimos tempos, houve um processo de expansão econômica e territorial que gerou desequilíbrios territoriais, grandes problemas ambientais e uma elevada conflituosidade social, que impediram a consecução desse grande objetivo. O trabalho realizado propôs avaliar quais elementos e fatores representam os maiores obstáculos à consolidação de modelos de desenvolvimento soberano e, ao mesmo tempo, discutir o domínio efetivo dos territórios e recursos dos Estados latinoamericanos e sua capacidade de realizar a gestão política territorial. Através de uma abordagem teórica e uma análise de caso, os resultados alcançados permitiram identificar vários problemas comuns à maioria dos países, estabelecer algumas considerações sobre a importância de melhorar a gestão territorial como estratégia para fortalecer a soberania de cada Estado; e apresentar alguns desafios futuros para construir uma visão geral da região em face do contexto internacional.

The need to establish long-term development models that allow overcoming structural problems and deficiencies that strengthen sovereignty and promote equality and social equity for Latin America, has been at the centre of political and academic debate in recent years. However, in recent times, an ongoing process of economic and territorial expansion generating territorial imbalances, major environmental problems and high social conflict has hindered the achievement of this great objective. This work seeks to evaluate which elements and factors represent the greatest obstacles to the consolidation of sovereign development models, at the same time that it discusses the effective domination of territories and re-sources by Latin American States and their true capacity to carry out territorial political management. Through a theoretical approach and a case analysis, the paper identifies various problems common to most countries, offers some considerations regarding the importance of improving territorial management as a strategy to strengthen State sovereignty; and pinpoints challenges in the way to build an overall vision for the region in the international context., La necesidad de establecer modelos de desarrollo de largo plazo que permitan superar problemáticas y deficiencias estructurales, que fortalezcan la soberanía y propicien la igualdad y la equidad social, ha estado en el centro del debate político y académico en los últimos años para América Latina. Sin embargo, en tiempos recientes se ha evidenciado un proceso de expansión económica y territorial que ha generado desequilibrios territoriales, grandes problemáticas ambientales y una elevada conflictividad social que han dificultado el alcance de este gran objetivo. El trabajo realizado propuso evaluar qué elemento y factores representan los mayores obstáculos para consolidar modelos de desarrollo soberanos, y al mismo tiempo discutir el efectivo dominio de los territorios y recursos de los Estados latinoamericanos y la capacidad verdadera de llevar adelante una gestión política territorial. A través de un abordaje teórico y un análisis de casos, los resultados alcanzados han permitido identificar diversas problemáticas comunes a la mayoría de los países, establecer algunas consideraciones respecto a la importancia de mejorar la gestión territorial como estrategia para fortalecer la soberanía de cada Estado; y plantear algunos desafíos a futuro para construir una visión de conjunto para la región frente al contexto internacional., A necessidade de estabelecer modelos de desenvolvimento de longo prazo que permitam superar problemas e deficiências estruturais, que fortaleçam a soberania e promovam a igualdade e a eqüidade social, esteve no centro do debate político e acadêmico nos últimos anos para a América Latina. No entanto, nos últimos tempos, houve um processo de expansão econômica e territorial que gerou desequilíbrios territoriais, grandes problemas ambientais e uma elevada conflituosidade social, que impediram a consecução desse grande objetivo. O trabalho realizado propôs avaliar quais elementos e fatores representam os maiores obstáculos à consolidação de modelos de desenvolvimento soberano e, ao mesmo tempo, discutir o domínio efetivo dos territórios e recursos dos Estados latinoamericanos e sua capacidade de realizar a gestão política territorial. Através de uma abordagem teórica e uma análise de caso, os resultados alcançados permitiram identificar vários problemas comuns à maioria dos países, estabelecer algumas considerações sobre a importância de melhorar a gestão territorial como estratégia para fortalecer a soberania de cada Estado; e apresentar alguns desafios futuros para construir uma visão geral da região em face do contexto internacional.

This article is devoted to the economic presence of PRC in Afghanistan and to the China's plans of strengthening and widening of military cooperation at the beginning of the 21 century. Forms and causes of Chinese influence on Afghanistan are being examined in the article., Статья посвящена экономическому проникновению КНР в Афганистан в начале XXI в., а также планам Китая по укреплению и расширению военного сотрудничества. В статье рассматриваются формы влияния КНР на Афганистан, а также их причины.

The article describes the conceptual basis of the contemporary processes of the global space restructuring. Alternative concept based on the communitarianism principles is considered., В статье характеризуются концептуальные основы современных процессов реструктуризации мирового пространства, рассматривается альтернативная концепция, опирающаяся на принципы коммунитаризма., В статті характеризуються концептуальні засади сучасних процесів реструктуризації світового простору, розглядається альтернативна концепція, що спирається на принципи комунітаризму.

At the end of this year, the Brazilian economy will be the sixth biggest in the world. This is the result of a positive economic cycle with macroeconomic stability, country risk decrease, employment creation, and reduction in income inequality and poverty. This article summarizes the key characteristics of this cycle, highlighting the main socio-political consequences and future challenges, A finales de este año la economía brasileña se convertirá en la sexta mayor potencia económica del mundo. Todo eso es derivado de un ciclo virtuoso de crecimiento combinado con una mayor estabilidad macroeconómica, reducción del riesgo país, generación de empleo, reducción de la desigualdad y de la pobreza. Este artículo presenta un resumen de las principales características de este ciclo, destacando al final sus principales consecuencias socio-políticas y sus principales desafíos.

At the end of this year, the Brazilian economy will be the sixth biggest in the world. This is the result of a positive economic cycle with macroeconomic stability, country risk decrease, employment creation, and reduction in income inequality and poverty. This article summarizes the key characteristics of this cycle, highlighting the main socio-political consequences and future challenges, A finales de este año la economía brasileña se convertirá en la sexta mayor potencia económica del mundo. Todo eso es derivado de un ciclo virtuoso de crecimiento combinado con una mayor estabilidad macroeconómica, reducción del riesgo país, generación de empleo, reducción de la desigualdad y de la pobreza. Este artículo presenta un resumen de las principales características de este ciclo, destacando al final sus principales consecuencias socio-políticas y sus principales desafíos.

The wine amphoras Lamboglia 2 and Dressel 6A were widely spread throughout the mediterranean from the late 2nd c BC to the mid-1st c AD. They have traditionally been assigned an origin on the Italian Adriatic coast, but this study argues against this view, presenting several strands of evidence in favour of an origin on the central Dalmatian coast. The evidence consists of kiln finds from Vis (ancient Issa), comparison of amphora fabrics, distribution of finds, links between names on the amphora stamps and senatorial names as well as other individuals known from inscriptions at Issa and Narona. The new data are discussed in the framework of the expansion of the Roman Empire in the late Republic, and the important role the senatorial aristocracy and their freedmen played in the wine-trade which was an important part of the economic expansion of Rome.

Pakistan's recent economic acceleration together with rapid rates of population growth is having a significant impact on the country's energy supply/demand balances. Energy supplies in turn affect the pace and pattern of the country's economic expansion. Drawing on the empirically-based complex links between energy and the economy, several alternative scenarios of growth and energy needs are developed in an attempt to answer several key questions. In particular, what are some of the key interrelationships between sources of energy demand and supply? What are the economic growth consequences of alternative energy availabilities and, in turn, how do these growth patterns affect the subsequent energy supply and demand patterns? What energy strategies are suggested by the interconnection between the country growth requirements and energy needs? Are these significantly modified under rising or falling energy prices? Based on this analysis, several guidelines are drawn for the country's future energy policy., Published in Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries Review, p125-157, June 2007.

From the archaeological and litterary sources (notably the amphoras' epigraphy), we try to present the chronological and spaceship tnethods of the economic expansión of Baetica and Tarraconensis (end of Ist.c ; B.C- IInd c. A. C), and to connect them with others criterions of integration of the provincial world as municipalization and apparence of an equestrian and senatorial elite. Then, we try to make an assessment of our knowledges about the composition of the means of an elite more and more influential in the political sphere. The implication of these families in the more dynamic sectors of the provincial economy emerges widely enough for Baetica, but leave more difficult to observe in Tarraconensis.

From the archaeological and litterary sources (notably the amphoras' epigraphy), we try to present the chronological and spaceship tnethods of the economic expansión of Baetica and Tarraconensis (end of Ist.c ; B.C- IInd c. A. C), and to connect them with others criterions of integration of the provincial world as municipalization and apparence of an equestrian and senatorial elite. Then, we try to make an assessment of our knowledges about the composition of the means of an elite more and more influential in the political sphere. The implication of these families in the more dynamic sectors of the provincial economy emerges widely enough for Baetica, but leave more difficult to observe in Tarraconensis.

The sources of growth in any country can be examined from several different perspectives, each suggestive of policy actions undertaken by the government: (1) the factors of production--the relative contribution of labour, capital and the like to overall output; (2) the major sources of demand--consumption, investment, exports; and (3) the sectoral contribution to growth--the contribution made by agriculture, manufacturing, etc. With regard to the sectoral contributions to growth in Pakistan, Burney (1986) found (over the period 1960-85) that the commodity-producing sectors (agriculture and manufacturing) accounted for then 40% of the growth in GDP, the major crops being the main source of the varying contribution of agriculture, while in the case of manufacturing, the large-scale sector's output accounted for more than 60% of the contribution. The Pakistan economy has gone through a number of major changes since 1985. In particular (but especially from 1988 onwards) progress has been especially strong in the area of freeing the private sector from regulation and artificial price distortions. In addition, a complementary privatisation programme was launched with the aim of reducing the role of the public sector in manufacturing and services. As a side benefit, the programme was seen as alleviating the government's financial and administrative burden and creating new opportunities for the private sector. While growth in large-scale manufacturing output has not accelerated in recent years (nor has its overall contribution to GDP growth increased), there is hope (particularly among official policy-makers) that this activity is finally beginning to play the classic role of a leading sector., Published in Development Policy Review, v12 n4 p369-385, Dec 1994.