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This article analyses two relevant theoretical tools for studying the function of merit as a device for legitimising political inequalities: a democratic critique of the manual/intellectual difference in the social division of labour and the distinction between capital and resource. To do so, it discusses Marx's and Durhkeim's positions on the social division of labour and specifies how this is concretised in the manual/intellectual difference, drawing on Étienne Balibar. Subsequently, José Luis Moreno Pestaña's distinction between capital and resource is presented in order to address how this logic is reproduced in the political field today, exemplified by references to Rawls and Lenin. Finally, it concludes by proposing two ways of democratising the manual/intellectual difference in current politics., Este artículo analiza dos herramientas teóricas relevantes para estudiar la función del mérito como un dispositivo que cumple una función de legitimación de las desigualdades políticas: una crítica democrática de la diferencia manual e intelectual en la división social del trabajo y la distinción entre capital y recurso. Para ello, comenta las posiciones de Marx y Durhkeim sobre la división social del trabajo y especifica cómo esta se concreta en la diferencia manual/intelectual apoyándose en Étienne Balibar. Posteriormente, se expone la distinción entre capital y recurso de José Luis Moreno Pestaña para abordar cómo esa lógica se reproduce en el campo político en la actualidad, ejemplificándolo con referencias a Rawls y Lenin. Finalmente, concluye proponiendo dos salidas para democratizar la diferencia manual/intelectual desde la política actual.

This paper presents a quantitative study of the gendered division of labor in three nordic and three southern european countries. Using data from the European social survey round 5 about Family and Wellbeing, containing our target countries. The aim of this study is to increase knowledge about which factors affect gender equality in unpaid work at home with breadwinning women as our core focus. Previous research has found that women do the majority of work at home regardless if they have children living at home or working full time. The theoretical framework in this study is based on Hochschild. Hochschild writes about how the traditional gender code for women is to be caring, while also describing the change towards an egalitarian view of household labor and what to expect from each other as men and women.

In this essay, we use lactation workas a lens through which to study women’s workin the past. The issues addressed are what countsas work, how to find evidence of women’s work,and how to use the evidence. We present anapproach developed by the Swedish Gender andWork (GaW) project, including a theoreticalfocus on practices and the verb-oriented method,and we illustrate how we combine quantitativeand qualitative analyses by zooming in and outon the data. We conclude with a discussion ofthe shifting analytical usefulness of ‘women’ asa category of historical analysis., Gender and Work

This paper presents a quantitative study of the gendered division of labor in three nordic and three southern european countries. Using data from the European social survey round 5 about Family and Wellbeing, containing our target countries. The aim of this study is to increase knowledge about which factors affect gender equality in unpaid work at home with breadwinning women as our core focus. Previous research has found that women do the majority of work at home regardless if they have children living at home or working full time. The theoretical framework in this study is based on Hochschild. Hochschild writes about how the traditional gender code for women is to be caring, while also describing the change towards an egalitarian view of household labor and what to expect from each other as men and women.

Collective behaviours, such as flocking in birds or decision making by bee colonies, are some of the most intriguing behavioural phenomena in the animal kingdom. The study of collective behaviour focuses on the interactions between individuals within groups, which typically occur over close ranges and short timescales, and how these interactions drive larger scale properties such as group size, information transfer within groups and group-level decision making. To date, however, most studies have focused on snapshots, typically studying collective behaviour over short timescales up to minutes or hours. However, being a biological trait, much longer timescales are important in animal collective behaviour, particularly how individuals change over their lifetime (the domain of developmental biology) and how individuals change from one generation to the next (the domain of evolutionary biology). Here, we give an overview of collective behaviour across timescales from the short to the long, illustrating how a full understanding of this behaviour in animals requires much more research attention on its developmental and evolutionary biology. Our review forms the prologue of this special issue, which addresses and pushes forward understanding the development and evolution of collective behaviour, encouraging a new direction for collective behaviour research. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Collective behaviour through time'.

Many professions in the public sector, such as healthcare staff, social welfare officers and teachers are experiencing a heavier workload and an increasing number of work tasks of growing complexity. This study examines the policy tendency to introduce a stricter division of labour, by delegating lower status tasks professionals preform to assistants, as a key to reduce public sector workload. In contrast, the public sector has been subject to organisational reforms the past 20–30 years resulting in a reduced division of labour among professions. This article explores the reversibility of the division of labour within a local public sector context, and it demonstrates how different micro-level factors may promote or counteract changes in the division of labour at the workplace. A main contribution is the prospect to rethink the capacity of organisational work-related reforms in professional settings directed at processes of division of labour in local public organisations.

This research was conducted to determine the relationship between the organizational climate variable and the job satisfaction variable among administrative employees in a UGEL in Nuevo Chimbote, 2023. The study was non-experimental and had a correlational design. A sample of 82 employees from the educational unit in question was surveyed using two validated questionnaires for each variable. Thequestionnaire on organizational climate consisted of 5 dimensions with 50 items, while the job satisfaction questionnaire comprised 7 dimensions with 36 items. In the end, a low but significant correlation between the variables was confirmed, which was established through the Spearman's Rho statistic = 0.273 with a p-value of 0.000, Esta investigación fue realizada con el objeto de determinar la relación entre la variable clima organizacional y la variable satisfacción laboralde los trabajadores administrativos en una UGEL de Nuevo Chimbote, 2023. El estudio fue de tipo no experimental y diseño correlacional. En una muestra de 82 empleados de la unidad educativa en mención, se aplicaron dos cuestionarios validados respecto a cada variable. El cuestionario sobre clima organizacional se compuso de 05 dimensiones con 50 ítems, y el cuestionario sobre satisfacción laboralse compuso de 07 dimensiones con 36 ítems. Finalmente, se comprobó la correlación baja, pero significativa entre las variables, la cual se comprobó mediante el estadístico Rho de Spearman = 0.273 con un valor p = 0.000

This research was conducted to determine the relationship between the organizational climate variable and the job satisfaction variable among administrative employees in a UGEL in Nuevo Chimbote, 2023. The study was non-experimental and had a correlational design. A sample of 82 employees from the educational unit in question was surveyed using two validated questionnaires for each variable. Thequestionnaire on organizational climate consisted of 5 dimensions with 50 items, while the job satisfaction questionnaire comprised 7 dimensions with 36 items. In the end, a low but significant correlation between the variables was confirmed, which was established through the Spearman's Rho statistic = 0.273 with a p-value of 0.000, Esta investigación fue realizada con el objeto de determinar la relación entre la variable clima organizacional y la variable satisfacción laboralde los trabajadores administrativos en una UGEL de Nuevo Chimbote, 2023. El estudio fue de tipo no experimental y diseño correlacional. En una muestra de 82 empleados de la unidad educativa en mención, se aplicaron dos cuestionarios validados respecto a cada variable. El cuestionario sobre clima organizacional se compuso de 05 dimensiones con 50 ítems, y el cuestionario sobre satisfacción laboralse compuso de 07 dimensiones con 36 ítems. Finalmente, se comprobó la correlación baja, pero significativa entre las variables, la cual se comprobó mediante el estadístico Rho de Spearman = 0.273 con un valor p = 0.000

This research was conducted to determine the relationship between the organizational climate variable and the job satisfaction variable among administrative employees in a UGEL in Nuevo Chimbote, 2023. The study was non-experimental and had a correlational design. A sample of 82 employees from the educational unit in question was surveyed using two validated questionnaires for each variable. Thequestionnaire on organizational climate consisted of 5 dimensions with 50 items, while the job satisfaction questionnaire comprised 7 dimensions with 36 items. In the end, a low but significant correlation between the variables was confirmed, which was established through the Spearman's Rho statistic = 0.273 with a p-value of 0.000, Esta investigación fue realizada con el objeto de determinar la relación entre la variable clima organizacional y la variable satisfacción laboralde los trabajadores administrativos en una UGEL de Nuevo Chimbote, 2023. El estudio fue de tipo no experimental y diseño correlacional. En una muestra de 82 empleados de la unidad educativa en mención, se aplicaron dos cuestionarios validados respecto a cada variable. El cuestionario sobre clima organizacional se compuso de 05 dimensiones con 50 ítems, y el cuestionario sobre satisfacción laboralse compuso de 07 dimensiones con 36 ítems. Finalmente, se comprobó la correlación baja, pero significativa entre las variables, la cual se comprobó mediante el estadístico Rho de Spearman = 0.273 con un valor p = 0.000

Since the 1980s spatial inequality within countries has been increasing. This thesis focuses in three parts on how certain agglomeration advantages of cities, known as agglomeration economies, have changed and why: 1) According to Marshall (1890) agglomeration economies consist of local advantages in exchanging, respectively, products, employees, and ideas. In this chapter, the relevance of each is measured over time by gathering historical U.S. data on the coagglomeration of industries and the extent to which these buy/sell products from each other, employ similar workers, and patent similar technologies. The results show that since 1970 the local exchange of ideas has become more relevant whereas exchanging products and employees has become less relevant. These changes are influenced by the rise of computer technology, as measured by the decreasing share of routine task intensive jobs, and trade competition from low-wage countries that make industries more knowledge-intensive. Surprisingly, the decreasing transportation costs of goods is not significantly associated with the decreasing importance of input-output linkages nor with the other two agglomeration determinants. 2) The division of labour as agglomeration advantage is often attributed to Adam Smith (1776), who argued that physical proximity facilitates the specialisation of individuals as the fruits of their labour are more easily exchanged. In this chapter is argued that this proximity is more relevant for complex activities where individuals are specialised in more narrow fields and need face-to-face contact to collaborate in larger networks. Results confirm that more complex jobs, industries, patents, and publications are more strongly concentrated in larger cities. U.S. patent data shows that since 1830 the concentration of complex activities in large cities has increased over time, in particular during technological revolutions, which is in line with the observation that the expanding frontier of huma

The present work seeks, from the Marxist critique of the theory of uneven geographical development, to reflect on the impacts of Covid-19 in the field of production and reproduction of daily life in Playa del Carmen to illustrate the reshaping logic of the geographical space of capitalism, from the labor exploitation of a traditional internationally recognized sun-and-beach destination, and one of the destinations in Mexico that has experienced the highest urban growth in the last 20 years due to excessive urban expansion due to the articulation of the neoliberal capital with tourism outsourcing and labor flexibilization., El presente trabajo procura desde la crítica marxista de la teoría del desarrollo geográfico desigual reflexionar sobre los impactos del Covid-19 en el ámbito de la producción y reproducción de la vida cotidiana en Playa del Carmen para ilustrar la lógica de reestructuración del espacio geográfico del capitalismo a partir de la explotación laboral de un destino tradicional de sol y playa reconocido a nivel internacional, y uno de los destinos de México que ha experimentado mayor crecimiento urbano en los últimos 20 años a causa de una expansión urbana desmedida fruto de la articulación del capital neoliberal con la tercerización turística y la flexibilización laboral.

Ants show remarkable ecological and evolutionary success due to their social life history and division of labour among colony members. In some lineages, the worker force became subdivided into morphologically distinct individuals (i.e. minor versus major workers), allowing for the differential performance of particular roles in the colony. However, the functional and ecological significance of these morphological differences are not well understood. Here, we applied finite element analysis (FEA) to explore the biomechanical differences between major and minor ant worker mandibles. Analyses were carried out on mandibles of two Pheidole species, a dimorphic ant genus. We tested whether major mandibles evolved to minimize stress when compared to minors using combinations of the apical tooth and masticatory margin bites under strike and pressure conditions. Majors performed better in pressure conditions yet, contrary to our expectations, minors performed better in strike bite scenarios. Moreover, we demonstrated that even small morphological differences in ant mandibles might lead to substantial differences in biomechanical responses to bite loading. These results also underscore the potential of FEA to uncover biomechanical consequences of morphological differences within and between ant workers., source:https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2021.0318

The social mole-rats of the family Bathyergidae show elaborate social organisation that may include division of labour between breeders and non-breeders as well as across non-breeders within their groups. However, comparative behavioural data across the taxa are rare and contrasts and similarities between species are poorly understood. Field studies of social bathyergids usually involve capturing all group members until the entire group is captured. Because each animal is only captured once and traps are typically placed in close proximity to active foraging areas, the order in which animals are captured provides an indication of the foraging activity of different individuals and of the spatial organisation of the group within the burrow system. Here, we compare the association of capture order with breeding status, sex, and body mass in four species and subspecies of social bathyergids, which vary in group size and represent all three social genera within the family Bathyergidae. We show that in naked and Damaraland mole-rats (Heterocephalus glaber and Fukomys damarensis), male and female breeders are captured later than non-breeders, whereas in two different subspecies of the genus Cryptomys only female breeders are captured later than non-breeders. The effect sizes vary largely and are 10 times larger in naked mole-rats as compared to Fukomys and 3-4 times larger than in Cryptomys. Among non-breeders, sex effects are notably absent in all species and body mass predicted capture order in both naked and Damaraland mole-rats. In naked mole-rats, larger non-breeders were captured earlier than smaller ones, whereas in Damaraland mole-rats intermediate-sized non-breeders were captured first. Our data suggest that there are similarities in behavioural structure and spatial organisation across all social bathyergid species, though the most pronounced differences within groups are found in naked mole-rats.

The social mole-rats of the family Bathyergidae show elaborate social organisation that may include division of labour between breeders and non-breeders as well as across non-breeders within their groups. However, comparative behavioural data across the taxa are rare and contrasts and similarities between species are poorly understood. Field studies of social bathyergids usually involve capturing all group members until the entire group is captured. Because each animal is only captured once and traps are typically placed in close proximity to active foraging areas, the order in which animals are captured provides an indication of the foraging activity of different individuals and of the spatial organisation of the group within the burrow system. Here, we compare the association of capture order with breeding status, sex, and body mass in four species and subspecies of social bathyergids, which vary in group size and represent all three social genera within the family Bathyergidae. We show that in naked and Damaraland mole-rats (Heterocephalus glaber and Fukomys damarensis), male and female breeders are captured later than non-breeders, whereas in two different subspecies of the genus Cryptomys only female breeders are captured later than non-breeders. The effect sizes vary largely and are 10 times larger in naked mole-rats as compared to Fukomys and 3-4 times larger than in Cryptomys. Among non-breeders, sex effects are notably absent in all species and body mass predicted capture order in both naked and Damaraland mole-rats. In naked mole-rats, larger non-breeders were captured earlier than smaller ones, whereas in Damaraland mole-rats intermediate-sized non-breeders were captured first. Our data suggest that there are similarities in behavioural structure and spatial organisation across all social bathyergid species, though the most pronounced differences within groups are found in naked mole-rats.

The social mole-rats of the family Bathyergidae show elaborate social organisation that may include division of labour between breeders and non-breeders as well as across non-breeders within their groups. However, comparative behavioural data across the taxa are rare and contrasts and similarities between species are poorly understood. Field studies of social bathyergids usually involve capturing all group members until the entire group is captured. Because each animal is only captured once and traps are typically placed in close proximity to active foraging areas, the order in which animals are captured provides an indication of the foraging activity of different individuals and of the spatial organisation of the group within the burrow system. Here, we compare the association of capture order with breeding status, sex, and body mass in four species and subspecies of social bathyergids, which vary in group size and represent all three social genera within the family Bathyergidae. We show that in naked and Damaraland mole-rats (Heterocephalus glaber and Fukomys damarensis), male and female breeders are captured later than non-breeders, whereas in two different subspecies of the genus Cryptomys only female breeders are captured later than non-breeders. The effect sizes vary largely and are 10 times larger in naked mole-rats as compared to Fukomys and 3-4 times larger than in Cryptomys. Among non-breeders, sex effects are notably absent in all species and body mass predicted capture order in both naked and Damaraland mole-rats. In naked mole-rats, larger non-breeders were captured earlier than smaller ones, whereas in Damaraland mole-rats intermediate-sized non-breeders were captured first. Our data suggest that there are similarities in behavioural structure and spatial organisation across all social bathyergid species, though the most pronounced differences within groups are found in naked mole-rats.

In recent decades there have been a number of endeavours to re-examine women’s lives during the last Ice Age. For far too long, the view of ‘man-the-hunter’ and woman as ‘gatherer, cook and child minder’ was an unchallenged hypothesis, and without doubt, this simplistic view of early hunter-gatherers’ division of labour practices was ripe for revision. Unfortunately, it led to a number of overzealous assertions: that women were big game hunters too, and as such, could not have been dominated by men. Breaking such stereotypes about prehistoric women is the message delivered in a recent documentary and accompanying book called ‘Lady Sapiens.’ But are such views about the roles of men and women in prehistory based on anything more than wishful thinking and do they result in fresh mythologising? Is there any archaeological evidence that allows us to assume anything about the economic activities of men and women in these early prehistoric cultures?, En los últimos años han proliferado intentos de reexaminar la vida de las mujeres durante el último periodo glacial. Durante demasiado tiempo, la visión del “hombre cazador” y la mujer como “recolectora, cocinera y niñera” ha sido una hipótesis indiscutida y, sin duda, esta imagen simplista de las prácticas de división del trabajo entre los cazadores-recolectores antiguos debía ser revisada. Desafortunadamente, esto ha llevado a un exceso de celo en algunas afirmaciones: las mujeres también practicaban la caza mayor y, por tanto, no podrían haber sido dominadas por los hombres. La ruptura de esos estereotipos sobre las mujeres prehistóricas es el mensaje que articula un reciente documental, al que acompaña un libro homónimo, llamado “Lady Sapiens”. Pero ¿están esas visiones sobre los papeles de hombres y mujeres en la Prehistoria basadas en algo más que pensamientos ilusorios que derivan en nuevas mitologías? ¿Hay alguna evidencia arqueológica que nos permita asumir algo sobre las actividades económicas de hombres y mujeres en esas culturas prehistóricas antiguas?

The social mole-rats of the family Bathyergidae show elaborate social organisation that may include division of labour between breeders and non-breeders as well as across non-breeders within their groups. However, comparative behavioural data across the taxa are rare and contrasts and similarities between species are poorly understood. Field studies of social bathyergids usually involve capturing all group members until the entire group is captured. Because each animal is only captured once and traps are typically placed in close proximity to active foraging areas, the order in which animals are captured provides an indication of the foraging activity of different individuals and of the spatial organisation of the group within the burrow system. Here, we compare the association of capture order with breeding status, sex, and body mass in four species and subspecies of social bathyergids, which vary in group size and represent all three social genera within the family Bathyergidae. We show that in naked and Damaraland mole-rats (Heterocephalus glaber and Fukomys damarensis), male and female breeders are captured later than non-breeders, whereas in two different subspecies of the genus Cryptomys only female breeders are captured later than non-breeders. The effect sizes vary largely and are 10 times larger in naked mole-rats as compared to Fukomys and 3-4 times larger than in Cryptomys. Among non-breeders, sex effects are notably absent in all species and body mass predicted capture order in both naked and Damaraland mole-rats. In naked mole-rats, larger non-breeders were captured earlier than smaller ones, whereas in Damaraland mole-rats intermediate-sized non-breeders were captured first. Our data suggest that there are similarities in behavioural structure and spatial organisation across all social bathyergid species, though the most pronounced differences within groups are found in naked mole-rats.

The social mole-rats of the family Bathyergidae show elaborate social organisation that may include division of labour between breeders and non-breeders as well as across non-breeders within their groups. However, comparative behavioural data across the taxa are rare and contrasts and similarities between species are poorly understood. Field studies of social bathyergids usually involve capturing all group members until the entire group is captured. Because each animal is only captured once and traps are typically placed in close proximity to active foraging areas, the order in which animals are captured provides an indication of the foraging activity of different individuals and of the spatial organisation of the group within the burrow system. Here, we compare the association of capture order with breeding status, sex, and body mass in four species and subspecies of social bathyergids, which vary in group size and represent all three social genera within the family Bathyergidae. We show that in naked and Damaraland mole-rats (Heterocephalus glaber and Fukomys damarensis), male and female breeders are captured later than non-breeders, whereas in two different subspecies of the genus Cryptomys only female breeders are captured later than non-breeders. The effect sizes vary largely and are 10 times larger in naked mole-rats as compared to Fukomys and 3-4 times larger than in Cryptomys. Among non-breeders, sex effects are notably absent in all species and body mass predicted capture order in both naked and Damaraland mole-rats. In naked mole-rats, larger non-breeders were captured earlier than smaller ones, whereas in Damaraland mole-rats intermediate-sized non-breeders were captured first. Our data suggest that there are similarities in behavioural structure and spatial organisation across all social bathyergid species, though the most pronounced differences within groups are found in naked mole-rats.

In this research we consider to which extent there has been a convergence in the labour force participation for men and women. Based on the Labour Force Survey, we compute employment rates by age and sex over the last three and a half decades in Spain. Using specific techniques for panel data, we find the employment ratio by age, year of observation, educational attainment, family status in the household and whether the individual is born in Spain. While among men, participation is always explained by changes in the economic situation to which they have been exposed throughout their working lives; among women, the increase in participation has only occurred in periods of economic expansion and among those with certain particularities such as a high level of education, born in Spain and with no children at home., En esta investigación se plantea hasta qué punto se ha experimentado una convergencia en la participación laboral de hombres y mujeres. Basándonos en la Encuesta de Población Activa, construimos las tasas de empleo por edad y sexo durante las últimas tres décadas y media en España. Utilizando técnicas específicas para datos en formato panel, hallamos la proporción de participación laboral según edad, año de observación, nivel de instrucción, situación familiar en el hogar y si se ha nacido en España. Mientras que entre los varones la participación siempre se explica por los cambios en la coyuntura económica a la que se hayan sometidos a lo largo de su biografía laboral, entre las mujeres, el incremento en la participación se ha dado únicamente en períodos de expansión económica y entre las que poseen ciertas particularidades como un alto nivel de instrucción, nacidas en España y sin hijos en el hogar.

Underscoring concerns related to gender studies, postcolonialism, and glocalism, this paper presents a discussion about how local is being presented in chick lit by a Pakistani female author Imtiaz (2016) in her Anglophonic novel Karachi You’re Killing Me! Applying Dirlik’s (1997) theorization about global and local in The Postcolonial Aura: Third World Criticism in the Age of Global Capitalism, where he asserts how the local gives an illusion of empowering the local, but in reality, local is viewed and presented in a parochial manner and put in a reductive category. The focus on the local, therefore, is a new gimmick of colonizers and imperialists. With this theoretical perspective, in this paper, it is argued that the representation of the locals in the novel is eclipsed by the colonial narrative. By underscoring negative aspects of local the writer seems to be performing the role of a native informant and is a re-endorsing colonial narrative about the orient. It is also argued that this local female author has been empowered to write but the agency she is granted is loaded because it is, in fact, quite restricted.

The present work seeks, from the Marxist critique of the theory of uneven geographical development, to reflect on the impacts of Covid-19 in the field of production and reproduction of daily life in Playa del Carmen to illustrate the reshaping logic of the geographical space of capitalism, from the labor exploitation of a traditional internationally recognized sun-and-beach destination, and one of the destinations in Mexico that has experienced the highest urban growth in the last 20 years due to excessive urban expansion due to the articulation of the neoliberal capital with tourism outsourcing and labor flexibilization., El presente trabajo procura desde la crítica marxista de la teoría del desarrollo geográfico desigual reflexionar sobre los impactos del Covid-19 en el ámbito de la producción y reproducción de la vida cotidiana en Playa del Carmen para ilustrar la lógica de reestructuración del espacio geográfico del capitalismo a partir de la explotación laboral de un destino tradicional de sol y playa reconocido a nivel internacional, y uno de los destinos de México que ha experimentado mayor crecimiento urbano en los últimos 20 años a causa de una expansión urbana desmedida fruto de la articulación del capital neoliberal con la tercerización turística y la flexibilización laboral.

[Abstract] Management of invasive alien species is a high priority for biodiversity conservation. Here, we studied the effects of glyphosate application, at 0.06 g/m2 concentration, on physiologically integrated basal and apical ramets of the invasive clonal plant Carpobrotus edulis. Physiological integration allows the transport of resources and other substances between connected ramets in clonal plants. We found a significant reduction of growth and photochemical efficiency both in basal and apical ramets of C. edulis after glyphosate application. Interestingly, we also observed a significant growth reduction in untreated basal ramets when they remained connected to apical ramets treated with glyphosate. This result was interpreted as a cost for basal ramets due to supporting severely stressed apical ramets. Therefore, local application of glyphosate to apical ramets of C. edulis can negatively affect not only their own growth, but also the growth of their interconnected, untreated basal ramets. Our results suggest that glyphosate effectiveness can be maintained when applied only to one part of the clone so that the amount of herbicide used in eradication programs can be greatly reduced, which can minimize the negative impact of chemical herbicides on ecosystems.

Cable bacteria form centimeter-long, multicellular filaments than can consist of ten thousands of cells. They evolved a unique energy metabolism that involves co-operation among cells that separately perform oxidation of the electron donor (sulfide, H2S) and reduction of the electron acceptor (oxygen, O2). This division of labor is facilitated via long-range electrical currents that run from cell to cell along a network of conductive fibers. This research provides further insights into the metabolism of these peculiar organisms. It was discovered that only the cells that oxidize sulfide have the capacity for growth whereas the cells that reduce oxygen serve to dispense electrons as quickly as possible without any growth. Thus, these oxygen-reducing cells appear to provide a kind of “community service” to the filament by ensuring an electron current without any capacity for growth. However, access to oxygen is essential for the survival of the filament and it appears to pace the cycles of growth and cell division among a filament where cell division is synchronized among cells within a filament. Cells residing in the oxic zone are believed to (temporarily) rely on storage compounds of which polyphosphate (poly-P) is most ubiquitously found in cable bacteria. Poly-P is an inorganic biopolymer that consists of tens to hundreds of phosphate residues linearly linked together by high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds. We found poly-P activity in almost all cable bacteria cells and it appears to have an essential role in the metabolic regulation of cable bacteria.

Many reports highlight the fact that women’s and men’s experience of and response to conflict-induced displacement is highly differentiated (El-Bushra, 2000; Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, 2014; Gururaja, 2000; Levine et al., 2019). However, few studies in the economics literature consider gender-specific effects. The phenomenon of conflict-induced displacement is associated with shifts that would be expected to have differential impacts on the households in which women and men live. These shifts include the risk of experiencing poverty, access to services, as well as health and education outcomes, among others. Evidence on the gender dimensions of displacement is thus needed to understand the associations between the socio-economic characteristics of displaced persons, poverty, and vulnerability and to inform policy responses that create durable solutions. This dissertation contributes to the literature by applying a gender lens to the empirical analysis of the impacts of conflict-induced displacement. It focuses on the case of Colombia, a middle-income country with the second largest IDP population in the world. The study builds on evidence from various academic disciplines to estimate the effects of displacement on household structures, poverty, and gender norms.

Este artículo se aproxima a la obra de Adam Smith a través de la embriología. Sostiene la hipótesis de que dicho autor halló una fuente de inspiración organizativa en la teoría epigenética del desarrollo, lo que explica las transformaciones temporales procediendo desde una homogeneidad inarticulada hacia una heterogeneidad articulada. Tras detectar las fuentes en las que Smith pudo basarse, identifica su presencia en su historia del lenguaje y de la división del trabajo, concluyendo con la naturaleza prescindible de la hipótesis de Dios y con la necesidad de que el ser humano se haga cargo, imaginativamente, de su propia historia., This article approaches the work of Adam Smith through embryology. It is argued that Smith's source of inspiration in thinking about organization was the epigenetic theory of development, according to which temporal transformations are explained as a move from inarticulated homogeneity to articulated heterogeneity. After detecting the sources on which Smith could have relied, the theory if found to be present in his account of the history of language and the division of labour and led him to the conclusion that the hypothesis of God is dispensable and that human beings need to take charge, imaginatively, of their own history.

The evolution of multicellularity paved the way for significant increases in biological complexity. Although multicellularity has evolved many times independently, we know relatively little about its origins. Directed evolution is a promising approach to studying early steps in this major transition, but current experimental systems have examined only a subset of the possible evolutionary routes to multicellularity. Here we consider egalitarian routes to multicellularity, in which unrelated unicellular organisms evolve to become a multicellular organism. Inspired by microbial syntrophies and lichens, we outline three such routes from a system of different species to an interdependent relationship that replicates. We compare these routes to contemporary experimental systems and consider how physical structure, the threat of invasion, division of labour and co-transmission affect their evolution.

The evolution of multicellularity paved the way for significant increases in biological complexity. Although multicellularity has evolved many times independently, we know relatively little about its origins. Directed evolution is a promising approach to studying early steps in this major transition, but current experimental systems have examined only a subset of the possible evolutionary routes to multicellularity. Here we consider egalitarian routes to multicellularity, in which unrelated unicellular organisms evolve to become a multicellular organism. Inspired by microbial syntrophies and lichens, we outline three such routes from a system of different species to an interdependent relationship that replicates. We compare these routes to contemporary experimental systems and consider how physical structure, the threat of invasion, division of labour and co-transmission affect their evolution.

Este artículo se aproxima a la obra de Adam Smith a través de la embriología. Sostiene la hipótesis de que dicho autor halló una fuente de inspiración organizativa en la teoría epigenética del desarrollo, lo que explica las transformaciones temporales procediendo desde una homogeneidad inarticulada hacia una heterogeneidad articulada. Tras detectar las fuentes en las que Smith pudo basarse, identifica su presencia en su historia del lenguaje y de la división del trabajo, concluyendo con la naturaleza prescindible de la hipótesis de Dios y con la necesidad de que el ser humano se haga cargo, imaginativamente, de su propia historia., This article approaches the work of Adam Smith through embryology. It is argued that Smith's source of inspiration in thinking about organization was the epigenetic theory of development, according to which temporal transformations are explained as a move from inarticulated homogeneity to articulated heterogeneity. After detecting the sources on which Smith could have relied, the theory if found to be present in his account of the history of language and the division of labour and led him to the conclusion that the hypothesis of God is dispensable and that human beings need to take charge, imaginatively, of their own history.

This article approaches the work of Adam Smith through embryology. It is argued that Smith’s source of inspiration in thinking about organization was the epigenetic theory of development, according to which temporal transformations are explained as a move from inarticulate homogeneity to articulated heterogeneity. After detecting the sources on which Smith could have relied, the theory is found to be present in his account of the history of language and the division of labour and led him to the conclusion that the hypothesis of God is dispensable and that human beings need to take charge, imaginatively, of their own history., Este artículo se aproxima a la obra de Adam Smith a través de la embriología. Sostiene la hipótesis de que dicho autor halló una fuente de inspiración organizativa en la teoría epigenética del desarrollo, que explica las transformaciones temporales procediendo desde una homogeneidad inarticulada hacia una heterogeneidad articulada. Tras detectar las fuentes en las que Smith pudo basarse, identifica su presencia en su historia del lenguaje y de la división del trabajo, concluyendo con la naturaleza prescindible de la hipótesis de Dios y con la necesidad de que el ser humano se haga cargo, imaginativamente, de su propia historia.

Este artículo se aproxima a la obra de Adam Smith a través de la embriología. Sostiene la hipótesis de que dicho autor halló una fuente de inspiración organizativa en la teoría epigenética del desarrollo, lo que explica las transformaciones temporales procediendo desde una homogeneidad inarticulada hacia una heterogeneidad articulada. Tras detectar las fuentes en las que Smith pudo basarse, identifica su presencia en su historia del lenguaje y de la división del trabajo, concluyendo con la naturaleza prescindible de la hipótesis de Dios y con la necesidad de que el ser humano se haga cargo, imaginativamente, de su propia historia., This article approaches the work of Adam Smith through embryology. It is argued that Smith's source of inspiration in thinking about organization was the epigenetic theory of development, according to which temporal transformations are explained as a move from inarticulated homogeneity to articulated heterogeneity. After detecting the sources on which Smith could have relied, the theory if found to be present in his account of the history of language and the division of labour and led him to the conclusion that the hypothesis of God is dispensable and that human beings need to take charge, imaginatively, of their own history.

Este artículo se aproxima a la obra de Adam Smith a través de la embriología. Sostiene la hipótesis de que dicho autor halló una fuente de inspiración organizativa en la teoría epigenética del desarrollo, lo que explica las transformaciones temporales procediendo desde una homogeneidad inarticulada hacia una heterogeneidad articulada. Tras detectar las fuentes en las que Smith pudo basarse, identifica su presencia en su historia del lenguaje y de la división del trabajo, concluyendo con la naturaleza prescindible de la hipótesis de Dios y con la necesidad de que el ser humano se haga cargo, imaginativamente, de su propia historia., This article approaches the work of Adam Smith through embryology. It is argued that Smith's source of inspiration in thinking about organization was the epigenetic theory of development, according to which temporal transformations are explained as a move from inarticulated homogeneity to articulated heterogeneity. After detecting the sources on which Smith could have relied, the theory if found to be present in his account of the history of language and the division of labour and led him to the conclusion that the hypothesis of God is dispensable and that human beings need to take charge, imaginatively, of their own history.

Adam Smith’s emphasis on the increase in productivity brought about by the division of labour in the Wealth of Nations led his general conception of the dynamics of economic growth to be associated almost exclusively with the productive specialization of labour and the free expansion of competitive markets. In this article we will try to show another perspective on Smithian economic growth. This perspective focuses on two fundamental aspects: on the one hand, the importance of imagination in creative-innovative processes, and, on the other, the dialogical basis of division of labour. In this way, we propose that an integral reading of Smith’s work is relevant, not only to reach a more complete understanding of the author’s own economic ideas, but also to provide interesting suggestions for thinking about the dynamics of growth and development today., El énfasis puesto por Adam Smith en el incremento de la productividad ocasionada por la división del trabajo en la Riqueza de las naciones llevó a que su concepción general sobre la dinámica del crecimiento económico se asociara casi exclusivamente con la especialización productiva del trabajo y la libre expansión los mercados competitivos. En este artículo intentaremos mostrar otra perspectiva sobre el crecimiento económico smithiano. Dicha perspectiva se centra en dos aspectos fundamentales: por un lado, la importancia de la imaginación en los procesos creativo-innovativos, y, por otro, el basamento dialógico de la división del trabajo. De esta manera, proponemos que una lectura integral de la obra smithiana resulta relevante, no solamente para alcanzar una comprensión más acabada de las propias ideas económicas del autor, sino también para brindar interesantes sugerencias para pensar la dinámica del crecimiento y desarrollo en la actualidad.

Adam Smith’s emphasis on the increase in productivity brought about by the division of labour in the Wealth of Nations led his general conception of the dynamics of economic growth to be associated almost exclusively with the productive specialization of labour and the free expansion of competitive markets. In this article we will try to show another perspective on Smithian economic growth. This perspective focuses on two fundamental aspects: on the one hand, the importance of imagination in creative-innovative processes, and, on the other, the dialogical basis of division of labour. In this way, we propose that an integral reading of Smith’s work is relevant, not only to reach a more complete understanding of the author’s own economic ideas, but also to provide interesting suggestions for thinking about the dynamics of growth and development today., El énfasis puesto por Adam Smith en el incremento de la productividad ocasionada por la división del trabajo en la Riqueza de las naciones llevó a que su concepción general sobre la dinámica del crecimiento económico se asociara casi exclusivamente con la especialización productiva del trabajo y la libre expansión los mercados competitivos. En este artículo intentaremos mostrar otra perspectiva sobre el crecimiento económico smithiano. Dicha perspectiva se centra en dos aspectos fundamentales: por un lado, la importancia de la imaginación en los procesos creativo-innovativos, y, por otro, el basamento dialógico de la división del trabajo. De esta manera, proponemos que una lectura integral de la obra smithiana resulta relevante, no solamente para alcanzar una comprensión más acabada de las propias ideas económicas del autor, sino también para brindar interesantes sugerencias para pensar la dinámica del crecimiento y desarrollo en la actualidad.

Many reports highlight the fact that women’s and men’s experience of and response to conflict-induced displacement is highly differentiated (El-Bushra, 2000; Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, 2014; Gururaja, 2000; Levine et al., 2019). However, few studies in the economics literature consider gender-specific effects. The phenomenon of conflict-induced displacement is associated with shifts that would be expected to have differential impacts on the households in which women and men live. These shifts include the risk of experiencing poverty, access to services, as well as health and education outcomes, among others. Evidence on the gender dimensions of displacement is thus needed to understand the associations between the socio-economic characteristics of displaced persons, poverty, and vulnerability and to inform policy responses that create durable solutions. This dissertation contributes to the literature by applying a gender lens to the empirical analysis of the impacts of conflict-induced displacement. It focuses on the case of Colombia, a middle-income country with the second largest IDP population in the world. The study builds on evidence from various academic disciplines to estimate the effects of displacement on household structures, poverty, and gender norms.

The evolution of multicellularity paved the way for significant increases in biological complexity. Although multicellularity has evolved many times independently, we know relatively little about its origins. Directed evolution is a promising approach to studying early steps in this major transition, but current experimental systems have examined only a subset of the possible evolutionary routes to multicellularity. Here we consider egalitarian routes to multicellularity, in which unrelated unicellular organisms evolve to become a multicellular organism. Inspired by microbial syntrophies and lichens, we outline three such routes from a system of different species to an interdependent relationship that replicates. We compare these routes to contemporary experimental systems and consider how physical structure, the threat of invasion, division of labour and co-transmission affect their evolution.

It has been proposed that naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber) societies resemble those of eusocial insects by showing a division of labour among non-breeding individuals. Earlier studies suggested that non-breeders belong to distinct castes that specialise permanently or temporarily in specific cooperative tasks. In contrast, recent research on naked mole-rats has shown that behavioural phenotypes are continuously distributed across non-breeders and that mole-rats exhibit considerable behavioural plasticity suggesting that individuals may not specialise permanently in work tasks. However, it is currently unclear whether individuals specialise temporarily and whether there is a sex bias in cooperative behaviour among non-breeders. Here, we show that non-breeding individuals vary in overall cooperative investment, but do not specialise in specific work tasks. Within individuals, investment into specific cooperative tasks such as nest building, food carrying and burrowing is positively correlated, and there is no evidence that individuals show trade-offs between these cooperative behaviours. Non-breeding males and females do not differ in their investment in cooperative behaviours and show broadly similar age and body mass related differences in cooperative behaviours. Our results suggest that non-breeding naked mole-rats vary in their overall contribution to cooperative behaviours and that some of this variation may be explained by differences in age and body mass. Our data provide no evidence for temporary specialisation, as found among some eusocial insects and suggest that the behavioural organisation of naked mole-rats resembles that of other cooperatively breeding vertebrates more than that of eusocial insect species.

The evolution of multicellularity paved the way for significant increases in biological complexity. Although multicellularity has evolved many times independently, we know relatively little about its origins. Directed evolution is a promising approach to studying early steps in this major transition, but current experimental systems have examined only a subset of the possible evolutionary routes to multicellularity. Here we consider egalitarian routes to multicellularity, in which unrelated unicellular organisms evolve to become a multicellular organism. Inspired by microbial syntrophies and lichens, we outline three such routes from a system of different species to an interdependent relationship that replicates. We compare these routes to contemporary experimental systems and consider how physical structure, the threat of invasion, division of labour and co-transmission affect their evolution.

The evolution of multicellularity paved the way for significant increases in biological complexity. Although multicellularity has evolved many times independently, we know relatively little about its origins. Directed evolution is a promising approach to studying early steps in this major transition, but current experimental systems have examined only a subset of the possible evolutionary routes to multicellularity. Here we consider egalitarian routes to multicellularity, in which unrelated unicellular organisms evolve to become a multicellular organism. Inspired by microbial syntrophies and lichens, we outline three such routes from a system of different species to an interdependent relationship that replicates. We compare these routes to contemporary experimental systems and consider how physical structure, the threat of invasion, division of labour and co-transmission affect their evolution.

Previous research has shown a prevailing 'modern gender gap' in socio-political attitudes in advanced capitalist economies. While numerous studies have confirmed gender differences in attitudes toward the welfare state in Europe, few have addressed the reason for this rift in men's and women's views about the role of government in ensuring the general welfare of citizens. In this paper, I examine the relationship between gender equality in unpaid labour, family policy and the gender gap in welfare state attitudes. Based on data from 21 countries participating in the European Social Survey (ESS) round 4, and using a mix of country- and individual-level regression models and multilevel models, I find that there is a clear relationship between country-level gender equality in unpaid labour and gender differences in support of an encompassing welfare state. A more equal distribution of unpaid care and domestic work correlates with women being increasingly supportive of a large and encompassing welfare state, in comparison with men. This pattern holds when controlling for individual-level economic risk and resources, cultural factors such as trust and social values traditionally related to support of an encompassing welfare state, and beliefs about welfare state efficiency and consequences for society in general. This pattern is evident for countries with a low level of familistic policies, while no distinguishable pattern is discernible for highly familistic countries. These findings have implications for the perception of gender as an emergent social cleavage with respect to welfare state attitudes. The results are discussed in the light of institutional theories on policy feedback, familism, social role theory and previous findings relating to modernization theory and 'gender realignment'., Välfärdsopinion 2017

Previous research has shown a prevailing 'modern gender gap' in socio-political attitudes in advanced capitalist economies. While numerous studies have confirmed gender differences in attitudes toward the welfare state in Europe, few have addressed the reason for this rift in men's and women's views about the role of government in ensuring the general welfare of citizens. In this paper, I examine the relationship between gender equality in unpaid labour, family policy and the gender gap in welfare state attitudes. Based on data from 21 countries participating in the European Social Survey (ESS) round 4, and using a mix of country- and individual-level regression models and multilevel models, I find that there is a clear relationship between country-level gender equality in unpaid labour and gender differences in support of an encompassing welfare state. A more equal distribution of unpaid care and domestic work correlates with women being increasingly supportive of a large and encompassing welfare state, in comparison with men. This pattern holds when controlling for individual-level economic risk and resources, cultural factors such as trust and social values traditionally related to support of an encompassing welfare state, and beliefs about welfare state efficiency and consequences for society in general. This pattern is evident for countries with a low level of familistic policies, while no distinguishable pattern is discernible for highly familistic countries. These findings have implications for the perception of gender as an emergent social cleavage with respect to welfare state attitudes. The results are discussed in the light of institutional theories on policy feedback, familism, social role theory and previous findings relating to modernization theory and 'gender realignment'., Välfärdsopinion 2017

Previous research has shown a prevailing 'modern gender gap' in socio-political attitudes in advanced capitalist economies. While numerous studies have confirmed gender differences in attitudes toward the welfare state in Europe, few have addressed the reason for this rift in men's and women's views about the role of government in ensuring the general welfare of citizens. In this paper, I examine the relationship between gender equality in unpaid labour, family policy and the gender gap in welfare state attitudes. Based on data from 21 countries participating in the European Social Survey (ESS) round 4, and using a mix of country- and individual-level regression models and multilevel models, I find that there is a clear relationship between country-level gender equality in unpaid labour and gender differences in support of an encompassing welfare state. A more equal distribution of unpaid care and domestic work correlates with women being increasingly supportive of a large and encompassing welfare state, in comparison with men. This pattern holds when controlling for individual-level economic risk and resources, cultural factors such as trust and social values traditionally related to support of an encompassing welfare state, and beliefs about welfare state efficiency and consequences for society in general. This pattern is evident for countries with a low level of familistic policies, while no distinguishable pattern is discernible for highly familistic countries. These findings have implications for the perception of gender as an emergent social cleavage with respect to welfare state attitudes. The results are discussed in the light of institutional theories on policy feedback, familism, social role theory and previous findings relating to modernization theory and 'gender realignment'., Välfärdsopinion 2017

Eusocial societies are characterized by a clear division of labour between non-breeding workers and breeding queens, and queens often do not contribute to foraging, defence and other maintenance tasks. It has been suggested that the structure and organization of social mole-rat groups resembles that of eusocial insect societies. However, the division of labour has rarely been investigated in wild mole-rats, and it is unknown whether breeders show decreased foraging activity compared with non-breeding helpers in natural groups. Here, we show that, in wild Damaraland mole-rats (Fukomys damarensis), breeders show lower activity in foraging areas than non-breeding group members. Both breeders and non-breeders displayed variation in activity across the different seasons. Our results suggest that group living allows social mole-rat breeders to reduce their investment in energetically costly behaviour, or alternatively, that the high cost of reproduction in this species forces a behavioural trade-off against foraging investment.

Previous research has shown a prevailing 'modern gender gap' in socio-political attitudes in advanced capitalist economies. While numerous studies have confirmed gender differences in attitudes toward the welfare state in Europe, few have addressed the reason for this rift in men's and women's views about the role of government in ensuring the general welfare of citizens. In this paper, I examine the relationship between gender equality in unpaid labour, family policy and the gender gap in welfare state attitudes. Based on data from 21 countries participating in the European Social Survey (ESS) round 4, and using a mix of country- and individual-level regression models and multilevel models, I find that there is a clear relationship between country-level gender equality in unpaid labour and gender differences in support of an encompassing welfare state. A more equal distribution of unpaid care and domestic work correlates with women being increasingly supportive of a large and encompassing welfare state, in comparison with men. This pattern holds when controlling for individual-level economic risk and resources, cultural factors such as trust and social values traditionally related to support of an encompassing welfare state, and beliefs about welfare state efficiency and consequences for society in general. This pattern is evident for countries with a low level of familistic policies, while no distinguishable pattern is discernible for highly familistic countries. These findings have implications for the perception of gender as an emergent social cleavage with respect to welfare state attitudes. The results are discussed in the light of institutional theories on policy feedback, familism, social role theory and previous findings relating to modernization theory and 'gender realignment'., Välfärdsopinion 2017

Datasets of the publication "Corpse removal increases when honey bee colonies experience high Varroa destructor infestation" published in Insectes Sociaux

High parasite load may increase honey bee mortality, which enhances stimuli for undertaker recruitment in colonies due to the presence of more corpses. However, it is unknown whether colonies exposed to the parasitic mite Varroa destructor (V+ colonies) remove corpses faster compared to colonies with reduced parasite levels (V− colonies). To test this hypothesis, different amounts of dead bees (25 or 100) were added to V+ and V− colonies to increase undertaker’s workload and to monitor the colonies’ undertaking performance (number of corpses removed after fixed time intervals and time until task completion). Until 40 min after adding corpses, V+ colonies had removed more corpses compared to V− colonies, especially when 100 corpses were added. At 100 min after adding the corpses and onwards, the difference between the V+ and V− colonies disappeared. V+ colonies used less time until task completion, especially when challenged to remove 25 corpses. The first efficient undertaking response in V+ colonies may have been caused by more or more experienced undertakers on standby compared to V− colonies, resulting in less total time needed to complete their undertaking task at increased workload. Our study suggests that changes in the division of labour in V+ colonies were not impaired, but we cannot exclude long-term effects for the colony as time spent on undertaking cannot be spent on other tasks. Our study contributes to understanding of social resilience in colonies under high stress and exposed to immediate emergencies.

Previous research has shown a prevailing 'modern gender gap' in socio-political attitudes in advanced capitalist economies. While numerous studies have confirmed gender differences in attitudes toward the welfare state in Europe, few have addressed the reason for this rift in men's and women's views about the role of government in ensuring the general welfare of citizens. In this paper, I examine the relationship between gender equality in unpaid labour, family policy and the gender gap in welfare state attitudes. Based on data from 21 countries participating in the European Social Survey (ESS) round 4, and using a mix of country- and individual-level regression models and multilevel models, I find that there is a clear relationship between country-level gender equality in unpaid labour and gender differences in support of an encompassing welfare state. A more equal distribution of unpaid care and domestic work correlates with women being increasingly supportive of a large and encompassing welfare state, in comparison with men. This pattern holds when controlling for individual-level economic risk and resources, cultural factors such as trust and social values traditionally related to support of an encompassing welfare state, and beliefs about welfare state efficiency and consequences for society in general. This pattern is evident for countries with a low level of familistic policies, while no distinguishable pattern is discernible for highly familistic countries. These findings have implications for the perception of gender as an emergent social cleavage with respect to welfare state attitudes. The results are discussed in the light of institutional theories on policy feedback, familism, social role theory and previous findings relating to modernization theory and 'gender realignment'., Välfärdsopinion 2017

This longitudinal study aims to create in-depth knowledge about the phenomena of middle-leadership and career in school by identifying (1) driving forces for seeking and maintaining middle-leading positions, (2) opportunities and difficulties in maintaining the middle-leading role over time, and (3) underlying thoughts of career disclosed in the respondents’ expressions. Five different reasons for seeking middle-leading positions are identified and driving forces for maintaining the position are categorised as either internal reward/non-observable outcomes or external reward/observable outcomes. Furthermore, the results show that different types of difficulties arise in distinct phases and that middle-leaders’ needs for support therefore vary over time. Additionally, the complexity of teachers’/middle-leaders’ career thinking clearly emerges, and implications for practice are discussed., Special issue: Understanding Middle Leadership: Practices and Policies. Guest Editors: Peter Grootenboer, Christine Edwards-Groves and Karin Rönnerman

This longitudinal study aims to create in-depth knowledge about the phenomena of middle-leadership and career in school by identifying (1) driving forces for seeking and maintaining middle-leading positions, (2) opportunities and difficulties in maintaining the middle-leading role over time, and (3) underlying thoughts of career disclosed in the respondents’ expressions. Five different reasons for seeking middle-leading positions are identified and driving forces for maintaining the position are categorised as either internal reward/non-observable outcomes or external reward/observable outcomes. Furthermore, the results show that different types of difficulties arise in distinct phases and that middle-leaders’ needs for support therefore vary over time. Additionally, the complexity of teachers’/middle-leaders’ career thinking clearly emerges, and implications for practice are discussed., Special issue: Understanding Middle Leadership: Practices and Policies. Guest Editors: Peter Grootenboer, Christine Edwards-Groves and Karin Rönnerman

This longitudinal study aims to create in-depth knowledge about the phenomena of middle-leadership and career in school by identifying (1) driving forces for seeking and maintaining middle-leading positions, (2) opportunities and difficulties in maintaining the middle-leading role over time, and (3) underlying thoughts of career disclosed in the respondents' expressions. Five different reasons for seeking middle-leading positions are identified and driving forces for maintaining the position are categorised as either internal reward/non-observable outcomes or external reward/observable outcomes. Furthermore, the results show that different types of difficulties arise in distinct phases and that middle-leaders' needs for support therefore vary over time. Additionally, the complexity of teachers'/middleleaders' career thinking clearly emerges, and implications for practice are discussed.