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Flower-rich hay meadows contain some of the highest levels of biodiversity of any habitat in the world. However, as a result of agricultural intensification they have all but disappeared in the UK. It is assessed that there are only 1605 hectares of lowland hay meadows left in Wales. This is regarded as a priority conservation habitat in Wales and efforts have been made within the Waun Las National Nature Reserve at the National Botanic Garden of Wales to restore this important habitat. Meadow species can also be found growing along roadside verges and within parks and public spaces. The improved management for biodiversity of this land by local authorities and other agencies offers opportunities to expand the area of land available for meadow communities, reduce fragmentation, improve connectivity and create a genetic reservoir for recolonisation. This research aimed to establish long term monitoring plots within each meadow to assess the success of the use of ‘green hay’ as a restoration method when applied to species-poor neutral pasture, for this research project and for the long-term. The study surveyed the effects of green hay on the plant communities within two meadows Cae Derwen and Cae Gwair treated in 2016 and 2019, respectively, and compared the plant community to that found in the donor meadow, Cae Tegerianau. The results suggested that the green hay treatment increased species richness within both meadows and also showed some evidence for the development of the desired MG5 community in Cae Derwen although this was not yet established in the more recent Cae Gwair. The questionnaire of biodiversity officers at Welsh local authorities showed that a broad range of restoration techniques are being used to support biodiversity in grasslands under local authority management; that these areas are likely to expand in the future and that there is the opportunity to create considerably more species rich grassland within the public realm if the barriers surrounding

Flower-rich hay meadows contain some of the highest levels of biodiversity of any habitat in the world. However, as a result of agricultural intensification they have all but disappeared in the UK. It is assessed that there are only 1605 hectares of lowland hay meadows left in Wales. This is regarded as a priority conservation habitat in Wales and efforts have been made within the Waun Las National Nature Reserve at the National Botanic Garden of Wales to restore this important habitat. Meadow species can also be found growing along roadside verges and within parks and public spaces. The improved management for biodiversity of this land by local authorities and other agencies offers opportunities to expand the area of land available for meadow communities, reduce fragmentation, improve connectivity and create a genetic reservoir for recolonisation. This research aimed to establish long term monitoring plots within each meadow to assess the success of the use of ‘green hay’ as a restoration method when applied to species-poor neutral pasture, for this research project and for the long-term. The study surveyed the effects of green hay on the plant communities within two meadows Cae Derwen and Cae Gwair treated in 2016 and 2019, respectively, and compared the plant community to that found in the donor meadow, Cae Tegerianau. The results suggested that the green hay treatment increased species richness within both meadows and also showed some evidence for the development of the desired MG5 community in Cae Derwen although this was not yet established in the more recent Cae Gwair. The questionnaire of biodiversity officers at Welsh local authorities showed that a broad range of restoration techniques are being used to support biodiversity in grasslands under local authority management; that these areas are likely to expand in the future and that there is the opportunity to create considerably more species rich grassland within the public realm if the barriers surrounding

This paper documents a cross-sectional look at L1 transfer and L2 contact for learners of English in a UK study abroad (SA) context. The study employed an instructional experimental design over a 6-month period with 34 Chinese students assigned to either an explicitly instructed group or a control group receiving no instruction. Instruction took place prior to departure for the UK and performance was measured based on a pretest-posttest design using an oral computer-animated production test (CAPT). This paper explores the data in two specific ways. Firstly, the request data were analysed at the pre-and delayed test stages (six months into the study abroad period) to analyse the extent to which participants’ reliance on L1 request strategies and language changes over time. Secondly, we measured the amount and type of contact with English which participants reported prior to and six months into the study abroad period. Results show that instruction facilitated development of pragmatically appropriate request language over time, with instructed learners showing significantly less reliance on L1 transfer than non-instructed learners. Contact with English increased significantly for both groups on all measures of language production but not all receptive contact with English. When compared, there was no significant difference between the groups’ contact with English at each stage, suggesting that instruction did not result in significantly more interaction with English during the study abroad period.

This paper documents a cross-sectional look at L1 transfer and L2 contact for learners of English in a UK study abroad (SA) context. The study employed an instructional experimental design over a 6-month period with 34 Chinese students assigned to either an explicitly instructed group or a control group receiving no instruction. Instruction took place prior to departure for the UK and performance was measured based on a pretest-posttest design using an oral computer-animated production test (CAPT). This paper explores the data in two specific ways. Firstly, the request data were analysed at the pre-and delayed test stages (six months into the study abroad period) to analyse the extent to which participants’ reliance on L1 request strategies and language changes over time. Secondly, we measured the amount and type of contact with English which participants reported prior to and six months into the study abroad period. Results show that instruction facilitated development of pragmatically appropriate request language over time, with instructed learners showing significantly less reliance on L1 transfer than non-instructed learners. Contact with English increased significantly for both groups on all measures of language production but not all receptive contact with English. When compared, there was no significant difference between the groups’ contact with English at each stage, suggesting that instruction did not result in significantly more interaction with English during the study abroad period.

This paper documents a cross-sectional look at L1 transfer and L2 contact for learners of English in a UK study abroad (SA) context. The study employed an instructional experimental design over a 6-month period with 34 Chinese students assigned to either an explicitly instructed group or a control group receiving no instruction. Instruction took place prior to departure for the UK and performance was measured based on a pretest-posttest design using an oral computer-animated production test (CAPT). This paper explores the data in two specific ways. Firstly, the request data were analysed at the pre-and delayed test stages (six months into the study abroad period) to analyse the extent to which participants’ reliance on L1 request strategies and language changes over time. Secondly, we measured the amount and type of contact with English which participants reported prior to and six months into the study abroad period. Results show that instruction facilitated development of pragmatically appropriate request language over time, with instructed learners showing significantly less reliance on L1 transfer than non-instructed learners. Contact with English increased significantly for both groups on all measures of language production but not all receptive contact with English. When compared, there was no significant difference between the groups’ contact with English at each stage, suggesting that instruction did not result in significantly more interaction with English during the study abroad period.

Chitin, a major component of fungal cell walls, is a well‐known pathogen‐associated molecular pattern (PAMP) that triggers defense responses in several mammal and plant species. Here, we show that two chitooligosaccharides, chitin and chitosan, act as PAMPs in grapevine (Vitis vinifera) as they elicit immune signalling events, defense gene expression and resistance against fungal diseases. To identify their cognate receptors, the grapevine family of LysM receptor kinases (LysM‐RKs) was annotated and their gene expression profiles were characterized. Phylogenetic analysis clearly distinguished three V. vinifera LysM‐RKs (VvLYKs) located in the same clade as the Arabidopsis CHITIN ELICITOR RECEPTOR KINASE1 (AtCERK1), which mediates chitin‐induced immune responses. The Arabidopsis mutant Atcerk1, impaired in chitin perception, was transformed with these three putative orthologous genes encoding VvLYK1‐1, ‐2, or ‐3 to determine if they would complement the loss of AtCERK1 function. Our results provide evidence that VvLYK1‐1 and VvLYK1‐2, but not VvLYK1‐3, functionally complement the Atcerk1 mutant by restoring chitooligosaccharide‐induced MAPK activation and immune gene expression. Moreover, expression of VvLYK1‐1 in Atcerk1 restored penetration resistance to the non‐adapted grapevine powdery mildew (Erysiphe necator). On the whole, our results indicate that the grapevine VvLYK1‐1 and VvLYK1‐2 participate in chitin‐ and chitosan‐triggered immunity and that VvLYK1‐1 plays an important role in basal resistance against E. necator.

This paper documents a cross-sectional look at L1 transfer and L2 contact for learners of English in a UK study abroad (SA) context. The study employed an instructional experimental design over a 6-month period with 34 Chinese students assigned to either an explicitly instructed group or a control group receiving no instruction. Instruction took place prior to departure for the UK and performance was measured based on a pretest-posttest design using an oral computer-animated production test (CAPT). This paper explores the data in two specific ways. Firstly, the request data were analysed at the pre-and delayed test stages (six months into the study abroad period) to analyse the extent to which participants’ reliance on L1 request strategies and language changes over time. Secondly, we measured the amount and type of contact with English which participants reported prior to and six months into the study abroad period. Results show that instruction facilitated development of pragmatically appropriate request language over time, with instructed learners showing significantly less reliance on L1 transfer than non-instructed learners. Contact with English increased significantly for both groups on all measures of language production but not all receptive contact with English. When compared, there was no significant difference between the groups’ contact with English at each stage, suggesting that instruction did not result in significantly more interaction with English during the study abroad period.

This paper documents a cross-sectional look at L1 transfer and L2 contact for learners of English in a UK study abroad (SA) context. The study employed an instructional experimental design over a 6-month period with 34 Chinese students assigned to either an explicitly instructed group or a control group receiving no instruction. Instruction took place prior to departure for the UK and performance was measured based on a pretest-posttest design using an oral computer-animated production test (CAPT). This paper explores the data in two specific ways. Firstly, the request data were analysed at the pre-and delayed test stages (six months into the study abroad period) to analyse the extent to which participants’ reliance on L1 request strategies and language changes over time. Secondly, we measured the amount and type of contact with English which participants reported prior to and six months into the study abroad period. Results show that instruction facilitated development of pragmatically appropriate request language over time, with instructed learners showing significantly less reliance on L1 transfer than non-instructed learners. Contact with English increased significantly for both groups on all measures of language production but not all receptive contact with English. When compared, there was no significant difference between the groups’ contact with English at each stage, suggesting that instruction did not result in significantly more interaction with English during the study abroad period.

Mae’r gwaith hwn yn ymchwilio i ddewisiadau ieithyddol dysgwyr Addysg Bellach. Er gwaethaf y cynnydd yn nifer y dysgwyr sy’n astudio trwy’r Gymraeg yn y sector statudol ac, yn fwy diweddar, yn y sector Addysg Uwch, nifer fach sy’n gwneud hynny yn y sector Addysg Bellach. Astudio’r rhesymau dros y bwlch hwn a chynnig argymhellion i wella’r sefyllfa yw bwriad y traethawd hwn. Mae astudiaeth o’r fath yn arbennig o bwysig yng nghyd-destun targed Llywodraeth Cymru o filiwn o siaradwyr Cymraeg erbyn 2050, ac wrth ehangu cylch gwaith y Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol i gynnwys y sector Addysg Bellach. Darpariaeth Gymraeg a dwyieithog mewn pynciau galwedigaethol yw’r ffocws, a’r berthynas rhwng darpariaeth a galw gan ddysgwyr. Cyfraniad gwreiddiol cyntaf y traethawd yw canfod y rhesymau pam y mae dysgwyr galwedigaethol yn astudio trwy’r Gymraeg neu’n ddwyieithog ar lefel Addysg Bellach, neu’n peidio â gwneud hynny. Y cyfraniad gwreiddiol pwysicaf yw’r dehongliad o sut y caiff y dewis o gyfrwng iaith darpariaeth ei gyflwyno i ddysgwyr. Dadansoddir effaith hyn ar eu dewisiadau, yng ngoleuni egwyddorion economeg ymddygiadol. Seilir yr ymchwil ar gyfweliadau lled-strwythuredig â staff mewn ysgolion a cholegau Addysg Bellach mewn pedair ardal wahanol ar draws Cymru. Cynhaliwyd hefyd grwpiau ffocws â disgyblion blwyddyn 11, a oedd yn gwneud penderfyniadau ynghylch eu Haddysg Bellach. Ymhlith y rhesymau allweddol a ganfuwyd yr oedd ffactorau economaidd, megis gwerth economaidd iaith yn y farchnad lafur a gwerth sgiliau dwyieithog. Canfuwyd hefyd ffactorau diwylliannol ac addysgol, megis canfyddiad o ddewis ‘naturiol.’ Dadleuir bod angen ymwrthod â disgwrs neoryddfrydol ‘galw’ a ‘dewis’ wrth gyflwyno cyfrwng iaith cwrs i ddysgwyr, er mwyn esgor ar y newidiadau sydd eu hangen i gynyddu nifer y dysgwyr yn astudio trwy’r Gymraeg ac yn ddwyieithog. Dadleuir dros gymhwyso egwyddorion newid ymddygiad trwy roi sylw i saernïo dewis. Un o’r prif argymhellion yw symud y pwyslais oddi ar roi’r dew

Constructed wetlands can be used for bioremediation of landfill leachate (LL) making it safe to discharge into the environment. Wetland plants (reed and willow), contribute to pollutant removal, particularly of organic and nitrogen loads. Root exudates stimulate microbial activity and elevate oxygen levels in the rhizosphere which promotes nitrification. This study investigated the effects of reed and willow on bioremediation of LL in comparison with an unplanted control by measuring redox potential levels in the rhizosphere of microcosm systems in a greenhouse. Redox potential in the reed rhizosphere was consistently the highest, with the willow rhizosphere consistently the lowest. Redox potential fluctuated in the willow rhizosphere during daylight hours, with large decreases in the morning. Levels of NH4+ decreased dramatically in the first day of the experiment and remained at similar low levels in all tanks. Removal of ammonia took place in the control tank with peaks in NO2- and NO3-, but levels of NO3- remained high. Removal of ammonia was also observed in the reed tank with a peak in NO2-, but there was no peak in NO3-, as well as in the willow tank, but there were no peaks in NO2- or NO3-. Final levels of totalnitrogen, nitrate and chemical oxygen demand where considerably lower in the reed and willow tank than the unplanted control.

Mae’r gwaith hwn yn ymchwilio i ddewisiadau ieithyddol dysgwyr Addysg Bellach. Er gwaethaf y cynnydd yn nifer y dysgwyr sy’n astudio trwy’r Gymraeg yn y sector statudol ac, yn fwy diweddar, yn y sector Addysg Uwch, nifer fach sy’n gwneud hynny yn y sector Addysg Bellach. Astudio’r rhesymau dros y bwlch hwn a chynnig argymhellion i wella’r sefyllfa yw bwriad y traethawd hwn. Mae astudiaeth o’r fath yn arbennig o bwysig yng nghyd-destun targed Llywodraeth Cymru o filiwn o siaradwyr Cymraeg erbyn 2050, ac wrth ehangu cylch gwaith y Coleg Cymraeg Cenedlaethol i gynnwys y sector Addysg Bellach. Darpariaeth Gymraeg a dwyieithog mewn pynciau galwedigaethol yw’r ffocws, a’r berthynas rhwng darpariaeth a galw gan ddysgwyr. Cyfraniad gwreiddiol cyntaf y traethawd yw canfod y rhesymau pam y mae dysgwyr galwedigaethol yn astudio trwy’r Gymraeg neu’n ddwyieithog ar lefel Addysg Bellach, neu’n peidio â gwneud hynny. Y cyfraniad gwreiddiol pwysicaf yw’r dehongliad o sut y caiff y dewis o gyfrwng iaith darpariaeth ei gyflwyno i ddysgwyr. Dadansoddir effaith hyn ar eu dewisiadau, yng ngoleuni egwyddorion economeg ymddygiadol. Seilir yr ymchwil ar gyfweliadau lled-strwythuredig â staff mewn ysgolion a cholegau Addysg Bellach mewn pedair ardal wahanol ar draws Cymru. Cynhaliwyd hefyd grwpiau ffocws â disgyblion blwyddyn 11, a oedd yn gwneud penderfyniadau ynghylch eu Haddysg Bellach. Ymhlith y rhesymau allweddol a ganfuwyd yr oedd ffactorau economaidd, megis gwerth economaidd iaith yn y farchnad lafur a gwerth sgiliau dwyieithog. Canfuwyd hefyd ffactorau diwylliannol ac addysgol, megis canfyddiad o ddewis ‘naturiol.’ Dadleuir bod angen ymwrthod â disgwrs neoryddfrydol ‘galw’ a ‘dewis’ wrth gyflwyno cyfrwng iaith cwrs i ddysgwyr, er mwyn esgor ar y newidiadau sydd eu hangen i gynyddu nifer y dysgwyr yn astudio trwy’r Gymraeg ac yn ddwyieithog. Dadleuir dros gymhwyso egwyddorion newid ymddygiad trwy roi sylw i saernïo dewis. Un o’r prif argymhellion yw symud y pwyslais oddi ar roi’r dew