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The 20 h responses of International female netball players to training days requiring two sessions (netball and strength, separated by two hours) ordered alternatively were examined. Eleven players completed strength followed by netball training two hours later (STR-NET), with the order reversed (NET-STR) on a separate day. Well-being, neuromuscular performance (jump height [JH], peak power output [PPO], peak velocity [PV]) and endocrine function (testosterone, cortisol concentrations) were measured before sessions one (PreS1) and two (PreS2), immediately after sessions one (IPS1) and two (IPS2), and 20 h post session one (20P). Session and differential ratings of perceived exertion (upper-body, cognitive/technical [RPE-T], lower-body, breathlessness) were collected, and accelerometry and heart rate measured netball load. Identification of clear between-order differences was based on the nonoverlap of the 95% confidence interval (95%CI) for mean differences relative to baseline. Compared to PreS1, greater increases in JH (percentage difference between trials; 95%CI: 9%; 4–14%), PPO (5%; 2–8%), PV (3%; 1–5%) and cortisol concentration (45%; 1–88%), and a greater decrease for testosterone/cortisol ratio (−35%; −72 to −2%) occurred at PreS2 in NET-STR. At 20P, greater decreases in JH (10%; 5–15%), PPO (4%; 1–8%) and PV (4%; 2–6%) were observed following STR-NET. No differences existed for well-being, whilst RPE-T was greater (15 AU; 3–26 AU) for strength training during NET-STR. Session order influenced neuromuscular and endocrine responses in International female netball players, highlighting session ordering as a key consideration when planning training.

The 20 h responses of International female netball players to training days requiring two sessions (netball and strength, separated by two hours) ordered alternatively were examined. Eleven players completed strength followed by netball training two hours later (STR-NET), with the order reversed (NET-STR) on a separate day. Well-being, neuromuscular performance (jump height [JH], peak power output [PPO], peak velocity [PV]) and endocrine function (testosterone, cortisol concentrations) were measured before sessions one (PreS1) and two (PreS2), immediately after sessions one (IPS1) and two (IPS2), and 20 h post session one (20P). Session and differential ratings of perceived exertion (upper-body, cognitive/technical [RPE-T], lower-body, breathlessness) were collected, and accelerometry and heart rate measured netball load. Identification of clear between-order differences was based on the nonoverlap of the 95% confidence interval (95%CI) for mean differences relative to baseline. Compared to PreS1, greater increases in JH (percentage difference between trials; 95%CI: 9%; 4–14%), PPO (5%; 2–8%), PV (3%; 1–5%) and cortisol concentration (45%; 1–88%), and a greater decrease for testosterone/cortisol ratio (−35%; −72 to −2%) occurred at PreS2 in NET-STR. At 20P, greater decreases in JH (10%; 5–15%), PPO (4%; 1–8%) and PV (4%; 2–6%) were observed following STR-NET. No differences existed for well-being, whilst RPE-T was greater (15 AU; 3–26 AU) for strength training during NET-STR. Session order influenced neuromuscular and endocrine responses in International female netball players, highlighting session ordering as a key consideration when planning training.

The APOE ε4 allele is a candidate genetic marker for risk and severity of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) including sport-related concussion. ε4 allele carriers experience reduced motor rehabilitation outcomes, poorer neurocognitive outcomes, increased cognitive impairments, amnesia and memory defects following mTBI. Concussion injury (mTBI) rates in elite rugby players are substantial and, consequently, elevated risk and severity of mTBI due to carriage of the ε4 risk allele may be detrimental to both the short-term and long-term health of elite players and reduce their likelihood of career success. Therefore, we investigated APOE ε2/ε3/ε4 of athletes at the elite level of competitive rugby. Genomic DNA was collected from 1006 Caucasian participants, comprising 523 elite rugby athletes and 483 non-athlete controls (RugbyGene study). All samples were genotyped for the APOE ε2/ε3/ε4 variants (rs429358 and rs7412) using real-time PCR. No genotype differences (P > 0.05) were identified between controls (ε4/ε4 = 2.3%) and either rugby union (ε4/ε4 = 3.7%) or rugby league (ε4/ε4 = 1.3%) athletes. Similarly, when the presence of the ε4 allele (ε4+) was compared to non-carriers, no allelic differences were observed between controls (ε4+ = 28%) and either rugby union (ε4+ = 29%) or rugby league (ε4+ = 33%). Rugby union athletes with international competitive experience showed an underrepresentation of the ε4/ε4 genotype compared to those without international experience (2.6% versus 4.7%, P = 0.01), but exhibited a similar frequency to controls (2.3%). These results suggest that APOE ε4 plays little or no role in the likelihood of a rugby athlete achieving elite competitive status. However, our data suggest that ~30% of rugby athletes could be at greater risk of poor recovery from concussion due to carriage of the ε4 APOE allele and this warrants research to establish if previously identified APOE ε4-mTBI associated outcomes exist in elite rugby.

Two common single nucleotide polymorphisms within the COL5A1 gene (SNPs; rs12722 C/T and rs3196378 C/A) have previously been associated with tendon and ligament pathologies. Given the high incidence of tendon and ligament injuries in elite rugby athletes, we hypothesised that both SNPs would be associated with career success. In 1105 participants (RugbyGene project), comprising 460 elite rugby union (RU), 88 elite rugby league athletes and 565 non-athlete controls, DNA was collected and genotyped for the COL5A1 rs12722 and rs3196378 variants using real-time PCR. For rs12722, the injury-protective CC genotype and C allele were more common in all athletes (21% and 47%, respectively) and RU athletes (22% and 48%) than in controls (16% and 41%, P ≤ 0.01). For rs3196378, the CC genotype and C allele were overrepresented in all athletes (23% and 48%) and RU athletes (24% and 49%) compared to controls (16% and 41%, P ≤ 0.02). The CC genotype in particular was overrepresented in the back and centres (24%) compared to controls, with more than twice the odds (OR = 2.25, P = 0.006) of possessing the injury-protective CC genotype. Furthermore, when considering both SNPs simultaneously, the CC–CC SNP-SNP combination and C–C inferred allele combination were higher in all the athlete groups (≥ 18% and ≥ 32%) compared to controls (13% and 27%; P = 0.01). However, no genotype differences were identified for either SNP when RU playing positions were compared directly with each other. It appears that the C alleles, CC genotypes and resulting combinations of both rs12722 and rs3196378 are beneficial for rugby athletes to achieve elite status and carriage of these variants may impart an inherited resistance against soft tissue injury, despite exposure to the high-risk environment of elite rugby. These data have implications for the management of inter-individual differences in injury risk amongst elite athletes.

Two common single nucleotide polymorphisms within the COL5A1 gene (SNPs; rs12722 C/T and rs3196378 C/A) have previously been associated with tendon and ligament pathologies. Given the high incidence of tendon and ligament injuries in elite rugby athletes, we hypothesised that both SNPs would be associated with career success. In 1105 participants (RugbyGene project), comprising 460 elite rugby union (RU), 88 elite rugby league athletes and 565 non-athlete controls, DNA was collected and genotyped for the COL5A1 rs12722 and rs3196378 variants using real-time PCR. For rs12722, the injury-protective CC genotype and C allele were more common in all athletes (21% and 47%, respectively) and RU athletes (22% and 48%) than in controls (16% and 41%, P ≤ 0.01). For rs3196378, the CC genotype and C allele were overrepresented in all athletes (23% and 48%) and RU athletes (24% and 49%) compared to controls (16% and 41%, P ≤ 0.02). The CC genotype in particular was overrepresented in the back and centres (24%) compared to controls, with more than twice the odds (OR = 2.25, P = 0.006) of possessing the injury-protective CC genotype. Furthermore, when considering both SNPs simultaneously, the CC–CC SNP-SNP combination and C–C inferred allele combination were higher in all the athlete groups (≥ 18% and ≥ 32%) compared to controls (13% and 27%; P = 0.01). However, no genotype differences were identified for either SNP when RU playing positions were compared directly with each other. It appears that the C alleles, CC genotypes and resulting combinations of both rs12722 and rs3196378 are beneficial for rugby athletes to achieve elite status and carriage of these variants may impart an inherited resistance against soft tissue injury, despite exposure to the high-risk environment of elite rugby. These data have implications for the management of inter-individual differences in injury risk amongst elite athletes.

This study assessed the acute response of salivary testosterone and cortisol concentrations to four exercise protocols in 27 elite male rugby players. Each athlete completed four protocols in random order on separate in-season weeks. Two protocols were resistance training based consisting of four exercises (high pull, bench press, squat and chin-ups/prone row): Protocol 1 consisted of 5 sets of 15 repetitions at 55% of 1 repetition maximum (1 RM) with 1-minute rest (5 x 15-55%). Protocol 2 consisted of three sets of five repetitions at 85% 1 RM with 2-minute rest (3 x 5-85%). Protocol 3 was a strongman (STRNG) session consisting of three stations within a circuit of exercises that included exercises such as battling ropes, prowler push, farmer's walk and tyre flips. Protocol 4 was based on boxing and wrestling inspired exercises (combative - COMB). Salivary testosterone and cortisol concentrations were measured before (PRE) and immediately after exercise (POST). Testosterone did not significantly change as a result of any intervention, whereas cortisol declined and the testosterone to cortisol (T/C) ratio increased significantly in both the 5 x 15-55% and 3 x 5-85% protocol. When results were retrospectively grouped and analysed according to the protocol that demonstrated the greatest absolute testosterone response, significant (P < 0.01) increases for the 5 x 15-55%, STRNG and COMB protocols were observed. The individualised hormone response to exercise observed in this study highlights the importance of recognising a protocol-dependent approach to training athletes. Furthermore this study also highlights a potential usefulness of employing STRNG and COMB training protocols as an alternative stimulus to resistance training.

Core temperature typically displays a low circadian in the morning before peaking later in the day, and these changes occur within small physiological ranges. Body temperature plays an important role in physical performance, and some athletes may be required to train and compete in both the morning and evening. However, the influence of the circadian change in body temperature and its influence on physical performance in elite athletes are unclear. This study examined the effects of the time of day on core temperature and lower body power output in elite rugby union sevens players. Sixteen elite rugby union sevens players completed morning (in AM) countermovement jump and core temperature (T-core) measurement, which were then repeated later the same day (in PM). Countermovement jump was processed for peak power output (PPO). Data were analyzed using paired samples t-test and Pearson's product moment correlation and are presented in mean +/- SD. T-core significantly increased from AM to PM (AM, 36.92 +/- 0.23 vs. PM, 37.18 +/- 0.188 degrees C; P < 0.001) with PPO significantly increasing from AM to PM in all 16 players (AM, 5248 +/- 366 vs. PM, 5413 +/- 361 W; P < 0.001). The delta change in T-core (0.26 +/- 0.138 degrees C) and PPO (164 +/- 78 W) was significantly related (r = 0.781; P < 0.001). In conclusion, small circadian changes in core temperature can influence physical performance in elite athletes. Coaches should seek to use strategies, which may raise morning body temperature to offset the circadian low in the morning.

Background Training recovery is vital for adaptation and performance, and to avoid cumulative fatigue and symptoms associated with overtraining. The use of cold-water immersion (CWI) as a recovery strategy is common; however, the physiological and biochemical rationale behind its use remains unclear. This study aimed to assess the relationship between body temperature responses to water immersion and individual perception of recovery, with subsequent exercise performance. Methods Twelve male rugby players participated in a 3-week cross-over trial where an intense 60 min conditioning session was followed immediately by 15 min of either 14 degrees C CWI, 30 degrees C warm-water immersion (WWI) or passive control (CON) recovery intervention. Postexercise body temperatures and subjective ratings of the recovery intervention were recorded and subsequently related to performance in a 5x40 m repeated sprint protocol undertaken 24 h later. Results CWI induced large reductions in core body temperature postimmersion (effect size (ES) range 1.05-3.21) and improved subsequent sprint performance compared to WWI (ES 1.04 +/- 0.84) and CON (ES 1.44 +/- 0.84). Both the degree of temperature decrease at 60 min postimmersion (r=0.6948; p=0.0121) and the subjective rating of the recovery intervention (r=0.5886; p=0.0441) were related to subsequent sprint performance. A very strong linear correlation was observed when these two factors were integrated (r=0.7743; p=0.0031). Conclusion A combination of physiological and psychological indices provides an improved indication of subsequent performance and suggests an important role of individual perception in enhancing training recovery.

Eccentric and overspeed training modalities are effective in improving components of muscular power. Eccentric training induces specific training adaptations relating to muscular force, whereas overspeed stimuli target the velocity component of power expression. We aimed to compare the effects of traditional or eccentric training with volume-matched training that incorporated overspeed exercises. Twenty team-sport athletes performed 4 counterbalanced 3-week training blocks consecutively as part of a preseason training period: (1) traditional resistance training; (2) eccentric-only resistance training; (3) traditional resistance training with overspeed exercises; and (4) eccentric resistance training with overspeed exercises. The overspeed exercises performed were assisted countermovement jumps and downhill running. Improvements in bench press (15.0 +/- 5.1 kg; effect size [ES]: 1.52), squat (19.5 +/- 9.1 kg; ES: 1.12), and peak power in the countermovement jump (447 +/- 248 W; ES: 0.94) were observed following the 12-week training period. Greater strength increases were observed as a result of the eccentric training modalities (ES: 0.72-1.09) with no effect of the overspeed stimuli on these measures (p > 0.05). Eccentric training with overspeed stimuli was more effective than traditional resistance training in increasing peak power in the countermovement jump (94 +/- 55 W; ES: 0.95). Eccentric training induced no beneficial training response in maximal running speed (p > 0.05); how-ever, the addition of overspeed exercises salvaged this relatively negative effect when compared with eccentric training alone (0.03 +/- 0.01 seconds; ES: 1.33). These training results achieved in 3-week training blocks suggest that it is important to target-specific aspects of both force and movement velocity to enhance functional measures of power expression.

Serpell, B. G., Horgan, B. G., Colomer, C. M. E., Field, B., Halson, S. L., & Cook, C. J. (2019). Sleep and salivary testosterone and cortisol during a short preseason camp: A study in professional rugby union. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 14(6), 796-804. Available here