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Physical characteristics: Original contains color illustrations, 形態: カラー図版あり, Accepted: 2016-12-30

The MEthane Remote sensing Lidar missioN (MERLIN) aims at demonstrating the spaceborne active measurement of atmospheric methane, a potent greenhouse gas, based on an Integrated Path Differential Absorption (IPDA) nadir-viewing LIght Detecting and Ranging (Lidar) instrument. MERLIN is a joint French and German space mission, with a launch currently scheduled for the timeframe 2021/22. The German Space Agency (DLR) is responsible for the payload, while the platform (MYRIADE Evolutions product line) is developed by the French Space Agency (CNES). The main scientific objective of MERLIN is the delivery of weighted atmospheric columns of methane dry-air mole fractions for all latitudes throughout the year with systematic errors small enough (<3.7 ppb) to significantly improve our knowledge of methane sources from global to regional scales, with emphasis on poorly accessible regions in the tropics and at high latitudes. This paper presents the MERLIN objectives, describes the methodology and the main characteristics of the payload and of the platform, and proposes a first assessment of the error budget and its translation into expected uncertainty reduction of methane surface emissions.

The MEthane Remote sensing Lidar missioN (MERLIN) aims at demonstrating the spaceborne active measurement of atmospheric methane, a potent greenhouse gas, based on an Integrated Path Differential Absorption (IPDA) nadir-viewing LIght Detecting and Ranging (Lidar) instrument. MERLIN is a joint French and German space mission, with a launch currently scheduled for the timeframe 2021/22. The German Space Agency (DLR) is responsible for the payload, while the platform (MYRIADE Evolutions product line) is developed by the French Space Agency (CNES). The main scientific objective of MERLIN is the delivery of weighted atmospheric columns of methane dry-air mole fractions for all latitudes throughout the year with systematic errors small enough (<3.7 ppb) to significantly improve our knowledge of methane sources from global to regional scales, with emphasis on poorly accessible regions in the tropics and at high latitudes. This paper presents the MERLIN objectives, describes the methodology and the main characteristics of the payload and of the platform, and proposes a first assessment of the error budget and its translation into expected uncertainty reduction of methane surface emissions.

A new airborne remote sensing approach to estimate an upper limit of the direct sea-air methane emission flux was applied over the 22/4b blowout site located at N57.92°, E1.63° in the North Sea. Passive remote sensing data using sunglint/sunglitter geometry were collected during instrumental tests with the Methane Airborne MAPper \u2013 MAMAP \u2013 instrument installed aboard the Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI) Polar-5 aircraft on 3. June 2011. MAMAP is a passive short wave infrared (SWIR) remote sensing spectrometer for airborne measurements and retrieval of the atmospheric column-averaged dry air mole fractions of methane (XCH4) and carbon dioxide (XCO2). In addition to MAMAP a fast CH4 in-situ analyzer (Los-Gatos Research Inc. RMT-200), two 5-hole turbulence probes and the Polar-5 basic sensor suite comprising different temperature, pressure, humidity and camera sensors were installed aboard the aircraft. The collected MAMAP remote sensing data acquired in the vicinity of the 22/4b blowout site showed no detectable increase in the derived XCH4 (with respect to the atmospheric background). Based on the absence of a detectable XCH4 column increase, an approximate top-down upper-limit for the direct atmospheric 22/4b blowout CH4 emissions from the main bubble plume of less than 10 ktCH4/yr has been derived. The constraint has been determined by comparing XCH4 information derived by the remote sensing measurements with results obtained from a Gaussian plume forward model simulation taking into account the actual flight track, the instrument sensitivity and measurement geometry, as well as the prevailing atmospheric conditions.

A new airborne remote sensing approach to estimate an upper limit of the direct sea-air methane emission flux was applied over the 22/4b blowout site located at N57.92°, E1.63° in the North Sea. Passive remote sensing data using sunglint/sunglitter geometry were collected during instrumental tests with the Methane Airborne MAPper \u2013 MAMAP \u2013 instrument installed aboard the Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI) Polar-5 aircraft on 3. June 2011. MAMAP is a passive short wave infrared (SWIR) remote sensing spectrometer for airborne measurements and retrieval of the atmospheric column-averaged dry air mole fractions of methane (XCH4) and carbon dioxide (XCO2). In addition to MAMAP a fast CH4 in-situ analyzer (Los-Gatos Research Inc. RMT-200), two 5-hole turbulence probes and the Polar-5 basic sensor suite comprising different temperature, pressure, humidity and camera sensors were installed aboard the aircraft. The collected MAMAP remote sensing data acquired in the vicinity of the 22/4b blowout site showed no detectable increase in the derived XCH4 (with respect to the atmospheric background). Based on the absence of a detectable XCH4 column increase, an approximate top-down upper-limit for the direct atmospheric 22/4b blowout CH4 emissions from the main bubble plume of less than 10 ktCH4/yr has been derived. The constraint has been determined by comparing XCH4 information derived by the remote sensing measurements with results obtained from a Gaussian plume forward model simulation taking into account the actual flight track, the instrument sensitivity and measurement geometry, as well as the prevailing atmospheric conditions.

In the past decade, there has been a massive growth in the horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing of shale gas and tight oil reservoirs to exploit formerly inaccessible or unprofitable energy resources in rock formations with low permeability. In North America, these unconventional domestic sources of natural gas and oil provide an opportunity to achieve energy self-sufficiency and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions when displacing coal as a source of energy in power plants. However, fugitive methane emissions in the production process may counter the benefit over coal with respect to climate change and therefore need to be well quantified. Here we demonstrate that positive methane anomalies associated with the oil and gas industries can be detected from space and that corresponding regional emissions can be constrained using satellite observations. On the basis of a mass-balance approach, we estimate that methane emissions for two of the fastest growing production regions in the United States, the Bakken and Eagle Ford formations, have increased by 990 ± 650 ktCH4 yr−1 and 530 ± 330 ktCH4 yr−1 between the periods 2006–2008 and 2009–2011. Relative to the respective increases in oil and gas production, these emission estimates correspond to leakages of 10.1% ± 7.3% and 9.1% ± 6.2% in terms of energy content, calling immediate climate benefit into question and indicating that current inventories likely underestimate the fugitive emissions from Bakken and Eagle Ford.

In the past decade, there has been a massive growth in the horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing of shale gas and tight oil reservoirs to exploit formerly inaccessible or unprofitable energy resources in rock formations with low permeability. In North America, these unconventional domestic sources of natural gas and oil provide an opportunity to achieve energy self-sufficiency and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions when displacing coal as a source of energy in power plants. However, fugitive methane emissions in the production process may counter the benefit over coal with respect to climate change and therefore need to be well quantified. Here we demonstrate that positive methane anomalies associated with the oil and gas industries can be detected from space and that corresponding regional emissions can be constrained using satellite observations. On the basis of a mass-balance approach, we estimate that methane emissions for two of the fastest growing production regions in the United States, the Bakken and Eagle Ford formations, have increased by 990 ± 650 ktCH4 yr−1 and 530 ± 330 ktCH4 yr−1 between the periods 2006–2008 and 2009–2011. Relative to the respective increases in oil and gas production, these emission estimates correspond to leakages of 10.1% ± 7.3% and 9.1% ± 6.2% in terms of energy content, calling immediate climate benefit into question and indicating that current inventories likely underestimate the fugitive emissions from Bakken and Eagle Ford.

Large parts of the anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions of CO2 and CH4 are released from localised and point sources such as power plants or as fugitive emissions from fossil fuel mining and production sites. These emissions, however, are often not readily assessed by current measurement systems and networks. A tool developed to better understand point sources of CO2 and CH4 is the optical remote sensing instrument MAMAP (Methane Airborne MAPer), operated from aircraft. After a recent instrument modification, retrievals of the column averaged dry air mole fractions for methane XCH4 (or for carbon dioxide XCO2) derived from MAMAP observations in the short-wave infrared, have a precision of about 0.4% significantly improving data quality. MAMAP total column data also serve as a testbed for inversion concepts for greenhouse gas emissions from point sources using total column atmospheric concentration measurements. As information on wind speed is an important input parameter for the inference of emission rates using MAMAP data, recent measurement campaigns comprised an in-situ wind probe operated onboard the same aircraft. Incorporation of these wind measurements in combination with model data leads to a large reduction of uncertainties on the inversion result. Using the examples of two coal mine ventilation shafts in Western Germany as well as other anthropogenic targets, the value of high resolution total column data to obtain emission rate estimates is demonstrated. MAMAP has also been tested in sunglint geometry over the ocean and has therefore the potential for application also to offshore emission sites.

The quantification of emissions of the greenhouse gas methane is essential for attributing the roles of anthropogenic activity and natural phenomena in global climate change. Our current measurement systems and networks whilst having improved during 5 the last decades, are deficient in many respects. For example, the emissions from localised and point sources such as landfills or fossil fuel exploration sites are not readily assessed. A tool developed to better understand point sources of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane is the optical remote sensing instrument MAMAP, operated from aircraft. After a recent instrument modification, retrievals of the column 10 averaged dry air mole fractions for methane XCH4 (or for carbon dioxide XCO2) derived from MAMAP data, have a precision of about 0.4% or better and thus can be used to infer emission rate estimates using an optimal estimation inverse Gaussian plume model or a simple integral approach. CH4 emissions from two coal mine ventilation shafts in Western Germany surveyed 15 during the AIRMETH2011 measurement campaign are used as examples to demonstrate and assess the value of MAMAP data for quantifying CH4 from point sources. While the knowledge of the wind is an important input parameter in the retrieval of emissions from point sources and is generally extracted from models, additional information from a turbulence probe operated on-board the same aircraft was utilised to 20 enhance the quality of the emission estimates. Although flight patterns were optimised for remote sensing measurements, data from an in-situ analyser for CH4 were found to be in good agreement with retrieved dry columns of CH4 from MAMAP and could be used to investigate and refine underlying assumptions for the inversion procedures. With respect to the total emissions of the mine at the time of the overflight, the in25 ferred emission rate of 50.4 ktCH4 yr−1 has a difference of less than 1% compared to officially reported values by t

Large parts of the anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions of CO2 and CH4 are released from localised and point sources such as power plants or as fugitive emissions from fossil fuel mining and production sites. These emissions, however, are often not readily assessed by current measurement systems and networks. A tool developed to better understand point sources of CO2 and CH4 is the optical remote sensing instrument MAMAP (Methane Airborne MAPer), operated from aircraft. After a recent instrument modification, retrievals of the column averaged dry air mole fractions for methane XCH4 (or for carbon dioxide XCO2) derived from MAMAP observations in the short-wave infrared, have a precision of about 0.4% significantly improving data quality. MAMAP total column data also serve as a testbed for inversion concepts for greenhouse gas emissions from point sources using total column atmospheric concentration measurements. As information on wind speed is an important input parameter for the inference of emission rates using MAMAP data, recent measurement campaigns comprised an in-situ wind probe operated onboard the same aircraft. Incorporation of these wind measurements in combination with model data leads to a large reduction of uncertainties on the inversion result. Using the examples of two coal mine ventilation shafts in Western Germany as well as other anthropogenic targets, the value of high resolution total column data to obtain emission rate estimates is demonstrated. MAMAP has also been tested in sunglint geometry over the ocean and has therefore the potential for application also to offshore emission sites.

The quantification of emissions of the greenhouse gas methane is essential for attributing the roles of anthropogenic activity and natural phenomena in global climate change. Our current measurement systems and networks whilst having improved during 5 the last decades, are deficient in many respects. For example, the emissions from localised and point sources such as landfills or fossil fuel exploration sites are not readily assessed. A tool developed to better understand point sources of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane is the optical remote sensing instrument MAMAP, operated from aircraft. After a recent instrument modification, retrievals of the column 10 averaged dry air mole fractions for methane XCH4 (or for carbon dioxide XCO2) derived from MAMAP data, have a precision of about 0.4% or better and thus can be used to infer emission rate estimates using an optimal estimation inverse Gaussian plume model or a simple integral approach. CH4 emissions from two coal mine ventilation shafts in Western Germany surveyed 15 during the AIRMETH2011 measurement campaign are used as examples to demonstrate and assess the value of MAMAP data for quantifying CH4 from point sources. While the knowledge of the wind is an important input parameter in the retrieval of emissions from point sources and is generally extracted from models, additional information from a turbulence probe operated on-board the same aircraft was utilised to 20 enhance the quality of the emission estimates. Although flight patterns were optimised for remote sensing measurements, data from an in-situ analyser for CH4 were found to be in good agreement with retrieved dry columns of CH4 from MAMAP and could be used to investigate and refine underlying assumptions for the inversion procedures. With respect to the total emissions of the mine at the time of the overflight, the in25 ferred emission rate of 50.4 ktCH4 yr−1 has a difference of less than 1% compared to officially reported values by t

Carbon monoxide (CO) is an important air pollutant whose emissions and atmospheric concentrations need to be monitored. The measurements of the SCIAMACHY instrument on ENVISAT are sensitive to CO concentration changes at all atmospheric altitude levels including the boundary layer. The SCIAMACHY CO measurements therefore contain information on CO emissions. Until now no studies have been published where the SCIAMACHY CO measurements have been used to quantify CO emissions by applying, for example, inverse modelling approaches. Here we report about a step in this direction. We have analysed three years of CO columns to investigate if spatial gradients resulting from United Kingdom (UK) CO emissions can be observed from space. The UK is an interesting target area because the UK is a relatively well isolated CO source region. On the other hand the UK is not the easiest target as its emissions are only moderate and because the surrounding water has low reflectivity in the 2.3 mu spectral region used for CO retrieval. We determined horizontal CO gradients from seasonally and yearly averaged CO during 2003-2005 over the UK taking into account daily wind fields. We show that the measured CO longitudinal (downwind) gradients have the expected order of magnitude. The estimated 2-sigma error of the gradients depends on time period and applied filtering criteria (e.g., land only, cloud free) and is typically 10-20% of the total column. The gradients are barely statistically significant within the 2-sigma error margin. This is mainly because of the relatively high noise of the SCIAMACHY CO measurements in combination with a quite low number of measurements (~100) mainly due to cloud cover.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is an important air pollutant whose emissions and atmospheric concentrations need to be monitored. The measurements of the SCIAMACHY instrument on ENVISAT are sensitive to CO concentration changes at all atmospheric altitude levels including the boundary layer. The SCIAMACHY CO measurements therefore contain information on CO emissions. Until now no studies have been published where the SCIAMACHY CO measurements have been used to quantify CO emissions by applying, for example, inverse modelling approaches. Here we report about a step in this direction. We have analysed three years of CO columns to investigate if spatial gradients resulting from United Kingdom (UK) CO emissions can be observed from space. The UK is an interesting target area because the UK is a relatively well isolated CO source region. On the other hand the UK is not the easiest target as its emissions are only moderate and because the surrounding water has low reflectivity in the 2.3 mu spectral region used for CO retrieval. We determined horizontal CO gradients from seasonally and yearly averaged CO during 2003-2005 over the UK taking into account daily wind fields. We show that the measured CO longitudinal (downwind) gradients have the expected order of magnitude. The estimated 2-sigma error of the gradients depends on time period and applied filtering criteria (e.g., land only, cloud free) and is typically 10-20% of the total column. The gradients are barely statistically significant within the 2-sigma error margin. This is mainly because of the relatively high noise of the SCIAMACHY CO measurements in combination with a quite low number of measurements (~100) mainly due to cloud cover.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is an important air pollutant whose emissions and atmospheric concentrations need to be monitored. The measurements of the SCIAMACHY instrument on ENVISAT are sensitive to CO concentration changes at all atmospheric altitude levels including the boundary layer. The SCIAMACHY CO measurements therefore contain information on CO emissions. Until now no studies have been published where the SCIAMACHY CO measurements have been used to quantify CO emissions by applying, for example, inverse modelling approaches. Here we report about a step in this direction. We have analysed three years of CO columns to investigate if spatial gradients resulting from United Kingdom (UK) CO emissions can be observed from space. The UK is an interesting target area because the UK is a relatively well isolated CO source region. On the other hand the UK is not the easiest target as its emissions are only moderate and because the surrounding water has low reflectivity in the 2.3 mu spectral region used for CO retrieval. We determined horizontal CO gradients from seasonally and yearly averaged CO during 2003-2005 over the UK taking into account daily wind fields. We show that the measured CO longitudinal (downwind) gradients have the expected order of magnitude. The estimated 2-sigma error of the gradients depends on time period and applied filtering criteria (e.g., land only, cloud free) and is typically 10-20% of the total column. The gradients are barely statistically significant within the 2-sigma error margin. This is mainly because of the relatively high noise of the SCIAMACHY CO measurements in combination with a quite low number of measurements (~100) mainly due to cloud cover.