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The microbial quality of 45 EBN consisting of raw unclean and raw clean Edible-birdnest (EBN) from two different premises were analyzed for 8 weeks. Using 3M™ Petrifilm, Total Aerobic Count (TAC) of raw clean EBN and Total Coliform Count (TCC) for raw unclean, 3 days, 2 weeks and 4 weeks EBN in both premises exceeded the limit stated in by the Malaysian Standard (MS 2334:2011; SIRIM/DVS 3:2015). A total of 264 bacteria and 208 fungi species were isolated. Bacteria isolated was identified using bioMérieux’s API® kit and a series of biochemical tests. Fungi were identified using techniques described by the techniques of James and Natalie (2001). The most common bacteria encountered in both premises were Staphylococcus sp., Corynebacterium sp. and Actinomyces sp. While in premise B, Aeromonas sp. and Ochrobactrum anthropi were also found to be prevalent. The difference in occurrence of bacteria in EBNs in both premises at all stages were found to be non-significant (P>0.05). As for fungi, Aspergillus niger was the most encountered fungi in premise A. While in premise B, Candida sp. was the most frequently isolated in that premise. The most common fungi encountered in both premises were Aspergillus niger and Mucor sp. Differences in occurrence of the fungi were only significant in the raw unclean EBN and non-significant in the rest of the stages. The bacteria and fungi mostly found in this study were environmental microorganisms. In one of the premise practices, Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), however the results indicate that the cleaning process of both premises are similar as the source of contamination could be caused by mishandling, cleaning, processing step and equipment.

The microbial quality of 45 EBN consisting of raw unclean and raw clean Edible-birdnest (EBN) from two different premises were analyzed for 8 weeks. Using 3M™ Petrifilm, Total Aerobic Count (TAC) of raw clean EBN and Total Coliform Count (TCC) for raw unclean, 3 days, 2 weeks and 4 weeks EBN in both premises exceeded the limit stated in by the Malaysian Standard (MS 2334:2011; SIRIM/DVS 3:2015). A total of 264 bacteria and 208 fungi species were isolated. Bacteria isolated was identified using bioMérieux’s API® kit and a series of biochemical tests. Fungi were identified using techniques described by the techniques of James and Natalie (2001). The most common bacteria encountered in both premises were Staphylococcus sp., Corynebacterium sp. and Actinomyces sp. While in premise B, Aeromonas sp. and Ochrobactrum anthropi were also found to be prevalent. The difference in occurrence of bacteria in EBNs in both premises at all stages were found to be non-significant (P>0.05). As for fungi, Aspergillus niger was the most encountered fungi in premise A. While in premise B, Candida sp. was the most frequently isolated in that premise. The most common fungi encountered in both premises were Aspergillus niger and Mucor sp. Differences in occurrence of the fungi were only significant in the raw unclean EBN and non-significant in the rest of the stages. The bacteria and fungi mostly found in this study were environmental microorganisms. In one of the premise practices, Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), however the results indicate that the cleaning process of both premises are similar as the source of contamination could be caused by mishandling, cleaning, processing step and equipment.

Transmission of pathogenic microorganisms in the last decades has been considered a significant health hazard and pathogenic E. coli, particularly antibiotic-resistant strains, have long been identified as a zoonotic problem. This study aimed to investigate multidrug resistant pathogenic E. coli isolates from wild birds, chickens, and environment in selected Orang Asli and Malay villages in Peninsular Malaysia. The bacteriological culture-based technique, disc diffusion method, and multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (mPCR) assay was used to determine the occurrence of pathogenic E. coli strains in the several samples in the study. E. coli isolates showed a variety of multi-drug resistant (MDR) antibiotypes and Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) and Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) were the most predominantly identified pathogenic E. coli strains. The findings of this study demonstrated the significance of animal reservoirs and the environment as sources of pathogenic E. coli, resistant bacteria, and resistance genes. Hence, there is a need for adoption of a practical surveillance approach on MDR pathogens to control foodborne contamination.

Foodborne pathogens have become a major concern not only due to the diseases they cause, but also because of the rise of antibiotic resistant strains in human and animals. The purposes of this study were to determine the occurrence of Campylobacter jejuni and Escherichia coli and their antibiotic resistance profiles in wild birds, chickens, humans, and the environment in Malay villages in Malaysia. Three Malay villages in Kota Setar, Kedah were chosen. Three hundred nine (309) samples were collected in this study including wild birds (38), chickens (71), humans (47), and the environment (153). Subsequently, the C. jejuni and E coli isolates were tested against antibiotics using the disc diffusion method. Campylobacter jejuni was found positive in 17 (37.8%) flies and 8 (11.3%) chickens. Also, E. coli was found positive in 89.4% of human, 47.4% of bird, 44 62% of chicken and in 71.2% of the environmental samples. Ten antibiotics were used to determine the susceptibility of the isolates. Eighty four percent (84%) of C. jejuni and 100% of E. coli isolates were found to show resistance towards at least one antibiotic. The isolates showed high resistance to cefpodoxime and tetracycline.

Introduction: Proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) is caused by avian bornavirus (ABV) has been identified in psittacine, non-psittacine birds and waterfowl. Birds may show signs of gastrointestinal tract deficit or neurological dysfunction or even both. The objectives of this study were to determine the molecular prevalence, risk factors and public awareness of ABV and PDD among captive and non-captive birds in Peninsular Malaysia. Material and Methods: A total of 344 cloacal swabs or faeces were collected and subjected to detection using the RT-PCR assay. Meanwhile, KAP questionnaires were distributed by using the Google forms platform. Results: Molecular prevalence studies revealed that 4.5% (9/201) of the pet birds were ABV-positive, whereas 0% (0/143) in waterfowl. Nine positive pet birds were identified to be PaBV-2, which is closest to ABV isolates EU781967 (USA). Among the risk factors analysed, category, age and, location, were found to show an association with the ABV positivity. The KAP survey result showed: the respondents have low knowledge (32.9%), however, they showed positive attitude (60.8%) and good practice (94.9%). The association between knowledge, attitude and practice showed that there was a significant association between knowledge-attitude and also attitude-practice (P < 0.05). Conclusion: This study proved that avian bornavirus (ABV) causes proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) among a group of pet birds of Psittaciformes, but it is present in Peninsular Malaysia with a low prevalence rate. Furthermore, in addition to the useful databases obtained from this study, the level of public awareness on the importance of avian bornavirus that causes fatal disorders among a wide range of bird species is satisfactorily raised.

Foodborne pathogens have become a major concern not only due to the diseases they cause, but also because of the rise of antibiotic resistant strains in human and animals. The purposes of this study were to determine the occurrence of Campylobacter jejuni and Escherichia coli and their antibiotic resistance profiles in wild birds, chickens, humans, and the environment in Malay villages in Malaysia. Three Malay villages in Kota Setar, Kedah were chosen. Three hundred nine (309) samples were collected in this study including wild birds (38), chickens (71), humans (47), and the environment (153). Subsequently, the C. jejuni and E coli isolates were tested against antibiotics using the disc diffusion method. Campylobacter jejuni was found positive in 17 (37.8%) flies and 8 (11.3%) chickens. Also, E. coli was found positive in 89.4% of human, 47.4% of bird, 44 62% of chicken and in 71.2% of the environmental samples. Ten antibiotics were used to determine the susceptibility of the isolates. Eighty four percent (84%) of C. jejuni and 100% of E. coli isolates were found to show resistance towards at least one antibiotic. The isolates showed high resistance to cefpodoxime and tetracycline.

Introduction: Proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) is caused by avian bornavirus (ABV) has been identified in psittacine, non-psittacine birds and waterfowl. Birds may show signs of gastrointestinal tract deficit or neurological dysfunction or even both. The objectives of this study were to determine the molecular prevalence, risk factors and public awareness of ABV and PDD among captive and non-captive birds in Peninsular Malaysia. Material and Methods: A total of 344 cloacal swabs or faeces were collected and subjected to detection using the RT-PCR assay. Meanwhile, KAP questionnaires were distributed by using the Google forms platform. Results: Molecular prevalence studies revealed that 4.5% (9/201) of the pet birds were ABV-positive, whereas 0% (0/143) in waterfowl. Nine positive pet birds were identified to be PaBV-2, which is closest to ABV isolates EU781967 (USA). Among the risk factors analysed, category, age and, location, were found to show an association with the ABV positivity. The KAP survey result showed: the respondents have low knowledge (32.9%), however, they showed positive attitude (60.8%) and good practice (94.9%). The association between knowledge, attitude and practice showed that there was a significant association between knowledge-attitude and also attitude-practice (P < 0.05). Conclusion: This study proved that avian bornavirus (ABV) causes proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) among a group of pet birds of Psittaciformes, but it is present in Peninsular Malaysia with a low prevalence rate. Furthermore, in addition to the useful databases obtained from this study, the level of public awareness on the importance of avian bornavirus that causes fatal disorders among a wide range of bird species is satisfactorily raised.

Transmission of pathogenic microorganisms in the last decades has been considered a significant health hazard and pathogenic E. coli, particularly antibiotic-resistant strains, have long been identified as a zoonotic problem. This study aimed to investigate multidrug resistant pathogenic E. coli isolates from wild birds, chickens, and environment in selected Orang Asli and Malay villages in Peninsular Malaysia. The bacteriological culture-based technique, disc diffusion method, and multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (mPCR) assay was used to determine the occurrence of pathogenic E. coli strains in the several samples in the study. E. coli isolates showed a variety of multi-drug resistant (MDR) antibiotypes and Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) and Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) were the most predominantly identified pathogenic E. coli strains. The findings of this study demonstrated the significance of animal reservoirs and the environment as sources of pathogenic E. coli, resistant bacteria, and resistance genes. Hence, there is a need for adoption of a practical surveillance approach on MDR pathogens to control foodborne contamination.

Orthopedic conditions are among the most frequent avian emergency cases admitted to veterinary hospitals and clinics. An external skeletal fixator is commonly used as surgical treatment in avian orthopedics. This review aimed to systematically evaluate the use of external skeletal fixator (ESF) in published cases of avian orthopedics. Four electronic databases were searched to identify all relevant case reports and case series. Altogether, 24 primary reports met the inclusion criteria. Of those, 16 reports were case reports; and eight were case series. In total, 166 avian patients with different orthopedic conditions were undergone ESF stabilization techniques; and raptor species formed the majority of the patients. The characteristics of the fractured bone were the key factor in the suitability of different ESF techniques. In addition, other factors such as type, location, and severity of the orthopedic condition should be considered. ESF implants are promising techniques for treating avian orthopedic conditions, as the complications related to the fixators were few, and the percentage of successfully released raptors was high. Unfortunately, there are so many cases of avian orthopedics that were not published. Considering this caveat, it is not easy to draw a firm conclusion on this topic. However, this paper can serve as a guiding principle for clinicians.

Orthopedic conditions are among the most frequent avian emergency cases admitted to veterinary hospitals and clinics. An external skeletal fixator is commonly used as surgical treatment in avian orthopedics. This review aimed to systematically evaluate the use of external skeletal fixator (ESF) in published cases of avian orthopedics. Four electronic databases were searched to identify all relevant case reports and case series. Altogether, 24 primary reports met the inclusion criteria. Of those, 16 reports were case reports; and eight were case series. In total, 166 avian patients with different orthopedic conditions were undergone ESF stabilization techniques; and raptor species formed the majority of the patients. The characteristics of the fractured bone were the key factor in the suitability of different ESF techniques. In addition, other factors such as type, location, and severity of the orthopedic condition should be considered. ESF implants are promising techniques for treating avian orthopedic conditions, as the complications related to the fixators were few, and the percentage of successfully released raptors was high. Unfortunately, there are so many cases of avian orthopedics that were not published. Considering this caveat, it is not easy to draw a firm conclusion on this topic. However, this paper can serve as a guiding principle for clinicians.

Over the years, development of molecular diagnostics has evolved significantly in the detection of pathogens within humans and their surroundings. Researchers have discovered new species and strains of viruses, while mitigating the viral infections that occur, owing to the accessibility of nucleic acid screening methods such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), quantitative (real-time) polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and reverse-transcription qPCR (RT-qPCR). While such molecular detection methods are widely utilized as the benchmark, the invention of isothermal amplifications has also emerged as a reliable tool to improvise on-field diagnosis without dependence on thermocyclers. Among the established isothermal amplification technologies are loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), recombinant polymerase amplification (RPA), strand displacement activity (SDA), nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), helicase-dependent amplification (HDA) and rolling circle amplification (RCA). This review highlights the past research on and future prospects of LAMP, its principles and applications as a promising point-of-care diagnostic method against avian viruses.

The aptitude of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) for changing its surface proteins allows the pathogen to reduce the efficacy of antimicrobial agents, especially those targeting surface proteins. Although antibiotic treatment cannot be a solution for the eradication of avian mycoplasmosis, it can be considered a good option to minimize the number of deaths. One of the challenges of antibiotic treatments is the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among field isolates. Monitoring the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of field isolates can be a practical way of avoiding AMR. Thus, various tests have been developed to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of field isolates. A modified broth microdilution minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) test has been regularly used to measure the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of MG field isolates. Numerous studies have reported an increase in the number of antibiotic-resistant field isolates of MG. Therefore, this study presents a systematic review on antimicrobial MIC values of MG isolates to gather recent knowledge and investigate the prevalence and distribution of AMR among MG field isolates. A thorough search was conducted for related studies throughout 3 electronic databases. Altogether, 23 studies were identified as eligible studies and were used for further analysis. The results showed that enrofloxacin, oxytetracycline, and tylosin had the highest number of resistant isolates in most of the geographical distributions, respectively. Minimum inhibitory concentrations of these antibiotics need to be determined regularly to optimize treatment dosages.

Fowl cholera has caused significant economic losses in many poultry producing countries worldwide. In Malaysia, outbreaks of fowl cholera are frequently reported and encountered in different types of poultry productions. The objective of this study was to characterise 13 avian Pasteurella multocida, isolated from fowl cholera outbreaks in Central Peninsular Malaysia in the period between 2000 and 2018. The isolates were subjected to multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for capsular serotyping, disc diffusion method for antimicrobial susceptibility profiles, and molecular genotyping using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). The capsular serotyping showed all 13 Pasteurella multocida isolates belonging to capsular serotype A. The antimicrobial susceptibility showed several multidrug resistance strains among the P. multocida isolates. All the isolates were resistant to erythromycin (100%), streptomycin (68%), tetracycline (37%), enrofloxacin (37%), florfenicol (23%), penicillin G (14%), gentamicin (14%), and amoxicillin (14%). The PFGE analysis clustered the isolates into three clones. Group A included isolates with a similarity of 87% from the year 2000, 2013, and 2018. Three sequence types were identified using MLST typing namely, ST129, ST231, and ST355. The ST355 was assigned for the first time in the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) database. Besides, ST129 has been reported in India, China, and Sri Lanka, which highlights the possibility of transmission between Asian countries. This study provides an insight into epidemiological information of Pasteurella multocida that causes fowl cholera outbreaks in the central region of Peninsular Malaysia.

Over the years, development of molecular diagnostics has evolved significantly in the detection of pathogens within humans and their surroundings. Researchers have discovered new species and strains of viruses, while mitigating the viral infections that occur, owing to the accessibility of nucleic acid screening methods such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), quantitative (real-time) polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and reverse-transcription qPCR (RT-qPCR). While such molecular detection methods are widely utilized as the benchmark, the invention of isothermal amplifications has also emerged as a reliable tool to improvise on-field diagnosis without dependence on thermocyclers. Among the established isothermal amplification technologies are loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), recombinant polymerase amplification (RPA), strand displacement activity (SDA), nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), helicase-dependent amplification (HDA) and rolling circle amplification (RCA). This review highlights the past research on and future prospects of LAMP, its principles and applications as a promising point-of-care diagnostic method against avian viruses.

The aptitude of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) for changing its surface proteins allows the pathogen to reduce the efficacy of antimicrobial agents, especially those targeting surface proteins. Although antibiotic treatment cannot be a solution for the eradication of avian mycoplasmosis, it can be considered a good option to minimize the number of deaths. One of the challenges of antibiotic treatments is the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among field isolates. Monitoring the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of field isolates can be a practical way of avoiding AMR. Thus, various tests have been developed to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of field isolates. A modified broth microdilution minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) test has been regularly used to measure the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of MG field isolates. Numerous studies have reported an increase in the number of antibiotic-resistant field isolates of MG. Therefore, this study presents a systematic review on antimicrobial MIC values of MG isolates to gather recent knowledge and investigate the prevalence and distribution of AMR among MG field isolates. A thorough search was conducted for related studies throughout 3 electronic databases. Altogether, 23 studies were identified as eligible studies and were used for further analysis. The results showed that enrofloxacin, oxytetracycline, and tylosin had the highest number of resistant isolates in most of the geographical distributions, respectively. Minimum inhibitory concentrations of these antibiotics need to be determined regularly to optimize treatment dosages.

Fowl cholera has caused significant economic losses in many poultry producing countries worldwide. In Malaysia, outbreaks of fowl cholera are frequently reported and encountered in different types of poultry productions. The objective of this study was to characterise 13 avian Pasteurella multocida, isolated from fowl cholera outbreaks in Central Peninsular Malaysia in the period between 2000 and 2018. The isolates were subjected to multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for capsular serotyping, disc diffusion method for antimicrobial susceptibility profiles, and molecular genotyping using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). The capsular serotyping showed all 13 Pasteurella multocida isolates belonging to capsular serotype A. The antimicrobial susceptibility showed several multidrug resistance strains among the P. multocida isolates. All the isolates were resistant to erythromycin (100%), streptomycin (68%), tetracycline (37%), enrofloxacin (37%), florfenicol (23%), penicillin G (14%), gentamicin (14%), and amoxicillin (14%). The PFGE analysis clustered the isolates into three clones. Group A included isolates with a similarity of 87% from the year 2000, 2013, and 2018. Three sequence types were identified using MLST typing namely, ST129, ST231, and ST355. The ST355 was assigned for the first time in the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) database. Besides, ST129 has been reported in India, China, and Sri Lanka, which highlights the possibility of transmission between Asian countries. This study provides an insight into epidemiological information of Pasteurella multocida that causes fowl cholera outbreaks in the central region of Peninsular Malaysia.

Aims: Psittacine birds such as parrots, macaws, cockatoos, lovebirds and parakeets, are widely reared as household pets or at aviary due to their attractive features. However, the status of virus-causing diseases of psittacine species in Malaysia is fairly under-documented. Therefore, this study was aimed to detect the presence of three common avian viruses that infect psittacine birds, i.e. beak and feather disease virus (BFDV), avian polyomavirus and avian papillomavirus. Methodology and results: Faecal samples from twelve asymptomatic captive psittacine birds of different species were collected from an undisclosed animal garden in Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. Briefly, the sample was homogenised and resuspended with SM buffer with the ratio 1:1 (weight of sample/g: volume of SM buffer/mL) before centrifugation at 1,000 × g for 20 min. The supernatant was collected and filtered before subjected to genomic DNA extraction using a commercialised kit. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique was used to screen the V1, VP1 and L1 genes of beak and feather disease virus (BFDV), avian polyomavirus and avian papillomavirus, respectively. Findings revealed that the samples were negative for BFDV and avian polyomavirus. However, positive results of 1.5 kbp PCR amplicon were detected for avian papillomavirus in four out of the 12 samples (33.33%), which was from the white-crested cockatoo, African grey parrot, yellow-collared macaw and Senegal parrot. Sequence analysis of the L1 gene from the Senegal parrot Poicephalus senegalus revealed 93% identity to a reference Psittacus erithacus timneh avian papillomavirus. Conclusion, significance and impact of study: This study added to the limited prevalence data of three important avian viruses which infect captive psittacines in Seri Kembangan, Selangor, Malaysia. Avian papillomavirus, but not BFDV and avian polyomavirus, was detected in the collected captive psittacine birds. Therefore, a routine screening can be performed to mon

Aims: Psittacine birds such as parrots, macaws, cockatoos, lovebirds and parakeets, are widely reared as household pets or at aviary due to their attractive features. However, the status of virus-causing diseases of psittacine species in Malaysia is fairly under-documented. Therefore, this study was aimed to detect the presence of three common avian viruses that infect psittacine birds, i.e. beak and feather disease virus (BFDV), avian polyomavirus and avian papillomavirus. Methodology and results: Faecal samples from twelve asymptomatic captive psittacine birds of different species were collected from an undisclosed animal garden in Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. Briefly, the sample was homogenised and resuspended with SM buffer with the ratio 1:1 (weight of sample/g: volume of SM buffer/mL) before centrifugation at 1,000 × g for 20 min. The supernatant was collected and filtered before subjected to genomic DNA extraction using a commercialised kit. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique was used to screen the V1, VP1 and L1 genes of beak and feather disease virus (BFDV), avian polyomavirus and avian papillomavirus, respectively. Findings revealed that the samples were negative for BFDV and avian polyomavirus. However, positive results of 1.5 kbp PCR amplicon were detected for avian papillomavirus in four out of the 12 samples (33.33%), which was from the white-crested cockatoo, African grey parrot, yellow-collared macaw and Senegal parrot. Sequence analysis of the L1 gene from the Senegal parrot Poicephalus senegalus revealed 93% identity to a reference Psittacus erithacus timneh avian papillomavirus. Conclusion, significance and impact of study: This study added to the limited prevalence data of three important avian viruses which infect captive psittacines in Seri Kembangan, Selangor, Malaysia. Avian papillomavirus, but not BFDV and avian polyomavirus, was detected in the collected captive psittacine birds. Therefore, a routine screening can be performed to mon

The role of wildlife such as wild birds, macaques, and bats in the spreading and maintenance of deadly zoonotic pathogens in nature have been well documented in many parts of the world. One such pathogen is the mosquitoes borne virus, namely the West Nile Virus (WNV). Previous research has shown that 1:7 and 1:6 Malaysian wild birds are WNV antibody and RNA positive, respectively, and bats in North America may not be susceptible to the WNV infection. This study was conducted to determine the status of WNV in Malaysian macaques and bats found in mangrove forests and caves, respectively. Archive sera and oropharyngeal swabs from long-tailed macaques were subjected to the antibody detection using WNV competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) and WNV RNA using RT-PCR, respectively, while the archive oropharyngeal and rectal swabs from bats were subjected to RT-PCR without serological analysis due to the unavailability of serum samples. The analysis revealed a WNV seropositivity of 29.63% (24/81) and none of the macaques were positive for WNV RNA. Meanwhile, 12.2% (5/41) of the bats from Pteropodidae, Emballonuridae, and Rhinolophidae families tested positive for WNV RNA. Here, we show a high WNV antibody prevalence in macaques and a moderate WNV RNA in various Malaysian bat species, suggesting that WNV circulates through Malaysian wild animals and Malaysian bat species may be susceptible to the WNV infection.

The emergence of multidrug resistance (MDR), including colistin resistance, among Enterobacteriaceae recovered from food animals poses a serious public health threat because of the potential transmission of these resistant variants to humans along the food chain. Village chickens or Ayam Kampung are free-range birds and are preferred by a growing number of consumers who consider these chickens to be organic and more wholesome. The current study investigates the antibiogram profiles of Salmonella isolates recovered from village chicken flocks in South-central Peninsular Malaysia. A total of 34 isolates belonging to eight serotypes isolated from village chickens were screened for resistance towards antimicrobials including colistin according to the WHO and OIE recommendations of critical antibiotics. S. Weltevreden accounted for 20.6% of total isolates, followed by serovars Typhimurium and Agona (17.6%). The majority of isolates (73.5%) demonstrated resistance to one or more antimicrobials. Eight isolates (23.5%) were resistant to ≥3 antimicrobial classes. Colistin resistance (minimum inhibitory concentrations: 4–16 mg/L) was detected among five isolates (14.7%), including S. Weltevreden, S. Albany, S. Typhimurium, and Salmonella spp. Univariable analysis of risk factors likely to influence the occurrence of MDR Salmonella revealed that the flock size, poultry production system, and use of antibiotics in the farm were not significantly (p > 0.05) associated with MDR Salmonella. The current study highlights that MDR Salmonella occur at a lower level in village chickens compared to that found in live commercial chickens. However, MDR remains a problem even among free-range chickens with minimal exposure to antibiotics.

Campylobacter is reported as a major cause of foodborne illness worldwide. Consumption of contaminated chicken meat is considered a significant risk factor of Campylobacter infection in humans. This study investigated the occurrence of non-Campylobacter jejuni-Campylobacter coli, in broiler chickens (n = 210) and chicken meat (n = 109). The samples were collected from seven broiler chicken farms (n = 210 cloacal swabs), 11 markets (n = 84 chicken meat), and 5 supermarkets (n = 25 chicken meat) located in different districts of Selangor State. Campylobacter were isolated from cloacal swabs using the Cape Town Protocol and from meat samples using the method of Duffy et al. (2007) with some modifications for Campylobacter isolations which were reported effective in the isolation of non-C. jejuni-C. coli Campylobacter species. The isolates were identified by Gram staining for cellular morphology, wet mount for motility and biochemical tests. Confirmation of presumed Campylobacter isolates was carried out using multiplex PCR (mPCR). One hundred seven (107/210) or 50.9% and twenty-nine (29/109) or 26.6% of chickens and chicken meat samples respectively were positive for Campylobacter species. Among the Campylobacter isolates from chickens, C. jejuni was the most predominantly isolated species (69.5%), followed by C. coli (16.2%). Campylobacter fetus and C. upsaliensis were the non-C. jejuni-C. coli Campylobacter species isolated in this study, at 9.3% and 2.5% respectively. Overall, the findings indicated broiler chickens were colonized not only by the common Campylobacter species but also by other Campylobacter species. We found the Cape Town Protocol useful to detect the occurrence of non-C. jejuni-C. coli isolates in chickens.

The emergence of multidrug resistance (MDR), including colistin resistance, among Enterobacteriaceae recovered from food animals poses a serious public health threat because of the potential transmission of these resistant variants to humans along the food chain. Village chickens or Ayam Kampung are free-range birds and are preferred by a growing number of consumers who consider these chickens to be organic and more wholesome. The current study investigates the antibiogram profiles of Salmonella isolates recovered from village chicken flocks in South-central Peninsular Malaysia. A total of 34 isolates belonging to eight serotypes isolated from village chickens were screened for resistance towards antimicrobials including colistin according to the WHO and OIE recommendations of critical antibiotics. S. Weltevreden accounted for 20.6% of total isolates, followed by serovars Typhimurium and Agona (17.6%). The majority of isolates (73.5%) demonstrated resistance to one or more antimicrobials. Eight isolates (23.5%) were resistant to ≥3 antimicrobial classes. Colistin resistance (minimum inhibitory concentrations: 4–16 mg/L) was detected among five isolates (14.7%), including S. Weltevreden, S. Albany, S. Typhimurium, and Salmonella spp. Univariable analysis of risk factors likely to influence the occurrence of MDR Salmonella revealed that the flock size, poultry production system, and use of antibiotics in the farm were not significantly (p > 0.05) associated with MDR Salmonella. The current study highlights that MDR Salmonella occur at a lower level in village chickens compared to that found in live commercial chickens. However, MDR remains a problem even among free-range chickens with minimal exposure to antibiotics.

Campylobacter is reported as a major cause of foodborne illness worldwide. Consumption of contaminated chicken meat is considered a significant risk factor of Campylobacter infection in humans. This study investigated the occurrence of non-Campylobacter jejuni-Campylobacter coli, in broiler chickens (n = 210) and chicken meat (n = 109). The samples were collected from seven broiler chicken farms (n = 210 cloacal swabs), 11 markets (n = 84 chicken meat), and 5 supermarkets (n = 25 chicken meat) located in different districts of Selangor State. Campylobacter were isolated from cloacal swabs using the Cape Town Protocol and from meat samples using the method of Duffy et al. (2007) with some modifications for Campylobacter isolations which were reported effective in the isolation of non-C. jejuni-C. coli Campylobacter species. The isolates were identified by Gram staining for cellular morphology, wet mount for motility and biochemical tests. Confirmation of presumed Campylobacter isolates was carried out using multiplex PCR (mPCR). One hundred seven (107/210) or 50.9% and twenty-nine (29/109) or 26.6% of chickens and chicken meat samples respectively were positive for Campylobacter species. Among the Campylobacter isolates from chickens, C. jejuni was the most predominantly isolated species (69.5%), followed by C. coli (16.2%). Campylobacter fetus and C. upsaliensis were the non-C. jejuni-C. coli Campylobacter species isolated in this study, at 9.3% and 2.5% respectively. Overall, the findings indicated broiler chickens were colonized not only by the common Campylobacter species but also by other Campylobacter species. We found the Cape Town Protocol useful to detect the occurrence of non-C. jejuni-C. coli isolates in chickens.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a zoonotic mosquito-borne flavivirus that is harbored and amplified by wild birds via the enzootic transmission cycle. Wide range of hosts are found to be susceptible to WNV infection including mammals, amphibians and reptiles across the world. Several studies have demonstrated that WNV was present in the Malaysian Orang Asli and captive birds. However, no data are available on the WNV prevalence in wild birds found in Malaysia. Therefore this study was conducted to determine the serological and molecular prevalence of WNV in wild birds in selected areas in the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Two types of wild birds were screened, namely migratory and resident birds in order to explore any possibility of WNV transmission from the migratory birds to the resident birds. Thus, a cross-sectional study was conducted at the migratory birds sanctuary located in Kuala Gula, Perak and Kapar, Selangor by catching 163 migratory birds, and 97 resident birds from Kuala Gula and Parit Buntar, Perak at different time between 2016 and 2017 (Total, n = 260). Blood and oropharyngeal swabs were collected for serological and molecular analysis, respectively. Serum were screened for WNV antibodies using a commercial competitive ELISA (c-ELISA) (ID Screen® West Nile Competition Multi-species ELISA, ID VET, Montpellier, France) and cross-reactivity towards Japanese Encephalitis virus (JEV) was also carried out using the JEV-double antigen sandwich (DAS) ELISA. Oropharyngeal swabs were subjected to one-step RT-PCR to detect WNV RNA, in which positive reactions were subsequently sequenced. WNV seropositive rate of 18.71% (29/155) at 95% CI (0.131 to 0.260) and molecular prevalence of 15.2% (16/105) at 95% CI (0.092 to 0.239) were demonstrated in migratory and resident wild birds found in West Coast Malaysia. Phylogenetic analyses of the 16 WNV isolates found in this study revealed that the local strains have 99% similarity to the strains from South Africa and wer

The role of wildlife such as wild birds, macaques, and bats in the spreading and maintenance of deadly zoonotic pathogens in nature have been well documented in many parts of the world. One such pathogen is the mosquitoes borne virus, namely the West Nile Virus (WNV). Previous research has shown that 1:7 and 1:6 Malaysian wild birds are WNV antibody and RNA positive, respectively, and bats in North America may not be susceptible to the WNV infection. This study was conducted to determine the status of WNV in Malaysian macaques and bats found in mangrove forests and caves, respectively. Archive sera and oropharyngeal swabs from long-tailed macaques were subjected to the antibody detection using WNV competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) and WNV RNA using RT-PCR, respectively, while the archive oropharyngeal and rectal swabs from bats were subjected to RT-PCR without serological analysis due to the unavailability of serum samples. The analysis revealed a WNV seropositivity of 29.63% (24/81) and none of the macaques were positive for WNV RNA. Meanwhile, 12.2% (5/41) of the bats from Pteropodidae, Emballonuridae, and Rhinolophidae families tested positive for WNV RNA. Here, we show a high WNV antibody prevalence in macaques and a moderate WNV RNA in various Malaysian bat species, suggesting that WNV circulates through Malaysian wild animals and Malaysian bat species may be susceptible to the WNV infection.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a zoonotic mosquito-borne flavivirus that is harbored and amplified by wild birds via the enzootic transmission cycle. Wide range of hosts are found to be susceptible to WNV infection including mammals, amphibians and reptiles across the world. Several studies have demonstrated that WNV was present in the Malaysian Orang Asli and captive birds. However, no data are available on the WNV prevalence in wild birds found in Malaysia. Therefore this study was conducted to determine the serological and molecular prevalence of WNV in wild birds in selected areas in the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Two types of wild birds were screened, namely migratory and resident birds in order to explore any possibility of WNV transmission from the migratory birds to the resident birds. Thus, a cross-sectional study was conducted at the migratory birds sanctuary located in Kuala Gula, Perak and Kapar, Selangor by catching 163 migratory birds, and 97 resident birds from Kuala Gula and Parit Buntar, Perak at different time between 2016 and 2017 (Total, n = 260). Blood and oropharyngeal swabs were collected for serological and molecular analysis, respectively. Serum were screened for WNV antibodies using a commercial competitive ELISA (c-ELISA) (ID Screen® West Nile Competition Multi-species ELISA, ID VET, Montpellier, France) and cross-reactivity towards Japanese Encephalitis virus (JEV) was also carried out using the JEV-double antigen sandwich (DAS) ELISA. Oropharyngeal swabs were subjected to one-step RT-PCR to detect WNV RNA, in which positive reactions were subsequently sequenced. WNV seropositive rate of 18.71% (29/155) at 95% CI (0.131 to 0.260) and molecular prevalence of 15.2% (16/105) at 95% CI (0.092 to 0.239) were demonstrated in migratory and resident wild birds found in West Coast Malaysia. Phylogenetic analyses of the 16 WNV isolates found in this study revealed that the local strains have 99% similarity to the strains from South Africa and wer

In 1994, Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) was reported to be responsible for conjunctivitis outbreak in the North American house finch population. This new course of MG infection in passerine was the result of spillover infections from the poultry strains. In severe cases of the disease, the conjunctival lesions might cause blindness and death, but in the mild form, there is a chance of recovery. The immune system of the recovered birds develops a resistance to the previous strains. However, the incomplete immune responses and the ability of MG to rapidly alter its surface antigens allow the pathogen to evolve new strains that can infect the birds that have already developed immune resistance. Although the rate of mortality decreases as a result of developing resistance, the persistence of the disease continues due to the increase in both virulence and the replication rate of the new strains. Therefore, the morbidity rate has remained steady, and new species of birds become infected as a result of evolutionary adaptation of the new strains. In this regard, the objective of this study is to provide a review of the mycoplasma conjunctivitis in passerine species, notably by looking at it from the host-pathogen interaction point of view.

In 1994, Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) was reported to be responsible for conjunctivitis outbreak in the North American house finch population. This new course of MG infection in passerine was the result of spillover infections from the poultry strains. In severe cases of the disease, the conjunctival lesions might cause blindness and death, but in the mild form, there is a chance of recovery. The immune system of the recovered birds develops a resistance to the previous strains. However, the incomplete immune responses and the ability of MG to rapidly alter its surface antigens allow the pathogen to evolve new strains that can infect the birds that have already developed immune resistance. Although the rate of mortality decreases as a result of developing resistance, the persistence of the disease continues due to the increase in both virulence and the replication rate of the new strains. Therefore, the morbidity rate has remained steady, and new species of birds become infected as a result of evolutionary adaptation of the new strains. In this regard, the objective of this study is to provide a review of the mycoplasma conjunctivitis in passerine species, notably by looking at it from the host-pathogen interaction point of view.

Aim: This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of Helicobacter pullorum in broiler chickens and their farm environment. Materials and Methods: The ceca from 100 broiler chickens from ten farms were sampled from processing sites or markets. The cecal contents were aseptically collected from each cecum and cultured. The farms were visited, and environmental samples were collected which included water, house flies, floor swabs and soils in chicken houses. Results: H. pullorum was present in 51% of the broilers; 17.5% of the flies were found to carry H. pullorum and Campylobacter spp., 30% of house floors were positive, while all water samples were negative. Conclusion: Flies could have picked up the organisms from the chickens' feces and/or the environment of the chicken houses or they could be one of the sources in the spread of the organisms. This study also showed that broiler chickens are potential reservoirs for H. pullorum and may serve as a source of infection for humans through the food chain.

Aim: This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of Helicobacter pullorum in broiler chickens and their farm environment. Materials and Methods: The ceca from 100 broiler chickens from ten farms were sampled from processing sites or markets. The cecal contents were aseptically collected from each cecum and cultured. The farms were visited, and environmental samples were collected which included water, house flies, floor swabs and soils in chicken houses. Results: H. pullorum was present in 51% of the broilers; 17.5% of the flies were found to carry H. pullorum and Campylobacter spp., 30% of house floors were positive, while all water samples were negative. Conclusion: Flies could have picked up the organisms from the chickens' feces and/or the environment of the chicken houses or they could be one of the sources in the spread of the organisms. This study also showed that broiler chickens are potential reservoirs for H. pullorum and may serve as a source of infection for humans through the food chain.

Flaviviruses (FVs) are arthropod-borne viruses of medical and veterinary importance. Numerous species of FVs have been isolated from various host; mainly humans, animals, ticks, and mosquitoes. Certain FVs are extremely host-specific; at the same time, some FVs can infect an extensive range of species. Based on published literatures, 11 species of FVs have been detected from diverse host species in Malaysia. In humans, dengue virus and Japanese encephalitis virus have been reported since 1901 and 1942. In animals, the Batu Cave virus, Sitiawan virus, Carey Island, Tembusu virus, Duck Tembusu virus, and Japanese encephalitis viruses were isolated from various species. In mosquitoes, Japanese encephalitis virus and Kunjin virus were isolated from Culex spp., while Zika virus and Jugra virus were isolated from Aedes spp. In ticks, the Langat virus was isolated from Ixodes spp. One of the major challenges in the diagnosis of FVs is the presence of sero-complexes as a result of cross-reactivity with one or more FV species. Subsequently, the distribution of specific FVs among humans and animals in a specific population is problematic to assess and often require comprehensive and thorough analyses. Molecular assays such as quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and digital droplet RT-PCR (ddRT-PCR) have been used for the differentiation of flavivirus infections to increase the accuracy of epidemiological data for disease surveillance, monitoring, and control. In situations where sero-complexes are common in FVs, even sensitive assays such as qRT-pCR can produce false positive results. In this write up, an overview of the various FV sero-complexes reported in Malaysia to date and the challenges faced in diagnosis of FV infections are presented.

JALILA BINTI ABU/// MOHAMED YOUSIF IBRAHIM MOHAMED,SALEHA BINTI ABDUL AZIZ,ZUNITA BINTI ZAKARIA/// Abdul Rashid,Elmutaz Atta Awad In developing countries, Escherichia coli and Campylobacter jejuni were found to be the prominent bacterial causes of gastroenteritis in human gastroenteritis, and they also showed an increased trend towards antibiotic resistance. Thus, the study aimed to determine the occurrence of E. coli and C. jejuni in wild birds, chickens, human and environment in villages in Perak and to determine the antibiotic resistance amongst E. coli and C. jejuni isolates. Three Orang Asli villages in Perak were chosen. Wild birds were trapped from nearby areas of the villages. We collected 52 human stool samples, 40 cloacal swabs from wild birds and 42 from chickens. For the environment, samples were collected from water (40 samples), flies (40 samples) and soil (40 samples). Two (5%) flies and 16 (38.1%) chickens were found positive for C. jejuni. Also, a total of 50 (96.2%) humans, 40 (100%) birds, 40 (95.2%) chickens were positive for E. coli and 111 (92.5%) of the 120 environmental samples tested positive for E. coli. The disk diffusion method was employed to determine the susceptibility of C. jejuni and E. coli isolates against ten antibiotics. All of the E. coli (100%) and C. jejuni (66%) isolates were found resistance towards at least one antibiotic. Hundred percent (100%) of the E. coli isolates obtained from wild birds were found to show multidrug resistance (MDR). Campylobacter jejuni isolates from flies and chickens showed high resistance towards nalidixic acid.

Aims: Campylobacter is a major cause of gastroenteritis in humans worldwide, particularly in developed countries and is reported to show an increased trend in antibiotic resistance. The purpose of this study was to determine the occurrence of Campylobacter in wild birds, poultry and in poultry environments in Selangor, Malaysia as well as to determine the rate of antibiotic resistance among Campylobacter isolates from poultry and wild birds. Methodology and results: The wild birds were trapped near poultry farm areas and in open areas which were more than 5 km away from poultry farms (referred to as open environment). Of 57 birds trapped near the farm's environment, 17.5% were positive for Campylobacter and out of these, 90% were C. jejuni. Of a total of 77 birds in the open environment, 22.1% were positive for Campylobacter and 88.7% were C. jejuni. The poultry farms consisted of 3 chicken and 2 duck farms. About 60% of the chickens and 44.8% of the ducks were positive for Campylobacter of which 80% were C. jejuni, while 20% were C. coli. The Campylobacter isolates were subjected to antibiotic susceptibility test using disk diffusion method against 12 antibiotics. All the isolates (100%) from wild birds around poultry houses were resistant to at least one antibiotic. Conclusion, significance and impact of study: The findings showed 93% of the isolates from wild birds were resistant to at least two antibiotics. Campylobacter isolates from poultry in the farms were resistant to at least one antibiotic. The antibiotic resistant Campylobacter is of public health importance.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of shackling and halal slaughter with head-only electrical stunning (ES) using water bath or no stunning (NS) on plasma levels of adrenaline (AD), noradrenaline (NAD) and corticosterone (CORT) levels of broiler chickens. Male and female broiler chickens (Cobb 500) 38 days old from a commercial farm in Johore, Malaysia, were placed in plastic crates (0.80 × 0.60 × 0.31 m) at 10 birds per crate, and transported for 2.5 hours in an open truck. The ambient temperature during transportation was 25 to 27 °C. Upon arrival at a commercial processing plant, a total of 50 male broiler chickens (2.2 - 2.5 kg) were randomly selected from the flocks that were delivered, transferred to different five crates (10 birds per crate) and held in a lairage for 2 to 3 h. Blood samples were collected at various points, namely after lairaging (P1) (first sampling point for both ES and NS chickens, regarded as basal values), shackling (P2) (second sampling point for both ES and NS chickens), stunning (P3) (third sampling point for ES chickens), and ventral neck incision in stunned (P4) (fourth sampling point for ES chickens) and no stun (P5) (third sampling point for NS chickens). Ten birds were sampled at each sampling point (50 birds in total). Both stunned and no stun birds were shackled. Results show that shackling (P2) did not significantly affect the AD, NAD and CORT levels. However, electrical stunning elevated both the AD and CORT levels significantly, but not NAD. Neck cut had negligible effect on the AD and NAD in NS and ES broilers, but significantly increased CORT compared with the basal CORT value. In conclusion, the study demonstrated that head-only electrical stunning using a water bath might elevate AD and CORT. The study concluded that, as measured by AD and NAD, slaughter with or without stunning may not induce a physiological stress response in broilers.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of shackling and halal slaughter with head-only electrical stunning (ES) using water bath or no stunning (NS) on plasma levels of adrenaline (AD), noradrenaline (NAD) and corticosterone (CORT) levels of broiler chickens. Male and female broiler chickens (Cobb 500) 38 days old from a commercial farm in Johore, Malaysia, were placed in plastic crates (0.80 × 0.60 × 0.31 m) at 10 birds per crate, and transported for 2.5 hours in an open truck. The ambient temperature during transportation was 25 to 27 °C. Upon arrival at a commercial processing plant, a total of 50 male broiler chickens (2.2 - 2.5 kg) were randomly selected from the flocks that were delivered, transferred to different five crates (10 birds per crate) and held in a lairage for 2 to 3 h. Blood samples were collected at various points, namely after lairaging (P1) (first sampling point for both ES and NS chickens, regarded as basal values), shackling (P2) (second sampling point for both ES and NS chickens), stunning (P3) (third sampling point for ES chickens), and ventral neck incision in stunned (P4) (fourth sampling point for ES chickens) and no stun (P5) (third sampling point for NS chickens). Ten birds were sampled at each sampling point (50 birds in total). Both stunned and no stun birds were shackled. Results show that shackling (P2) did not significantly affect the AD, NAD and CORT levels. However, electrical stunning elevated both the AD and CORT levels significantly, but not NAD. Neck cut had negligible effect on the AD and NAD in NS and ES broilers, but significantly increased CORT compared with the basal CORT value. In conclusion, the study demonstrated that head-only electrical stunning using a water bath might elevate AD and CORT. The study concluded that, as measured by AD and NAD, slaughter with or without stunning may not induce a physiological stress response in broilers.

Flaviviruses (FVs) are arthropod-borne viruses of medical and veterinary importance. Numerous species of FVs have been isolated from various host; mainly humans, animals, ticks, and mosquitoes. Certain FVs are extremely host-specific; at the same time, some FVs can infect an extensive range of species. Based on published literatures, 11 species of FVs have been detected from diverse host species in Malaysia. In humans, dengue virus and Japanese encephalitis virus have been reported since 1901 and 1942. In animals, the Batu Cave virus, Sitiawan virus, Carey Island, Tembusu virus, Duck Tembusu virus, and Japanese encephalitis viruses were isolated from various species. In mosquitoes, Japanese encephalitis virus and Kunjin virus were isolated from Culex spp., while Zika virus and Jugra virus were isolated from Aedes spp. In ticks, the Langat virus was isolated from Ixodes spp. One of the major challenges in the diagnosis of FVs is the presence of sero-complexes as a result of cross-reactivity with one or more FV species. Subsequently, the distribution of specific FVs among humans and animals in a specific population is problematic to assess and often require comprehensive and thorough analyses. Molecular assays such as quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and digital droplet RT-PCR (ddRT-PCR) have been used for the differentiation of flavivirus infections to increase the accuracy of epidemiological data for disease surveillance, monitoring, and control. In situations where sero-complexes are common in FVs, even sensitive assays such as qRT-pCR can produce false positive results. In this write up, an overview of the various FV sero-complexes reported in Malaysia to date and the challenges faced in diagnosis of FV infections are presented.

JALILA BINTI ABU/// MOHAMED YOUSIF IBRAHIM MOHAMED,SALEHA BINTI ABDUL AZIZ,ZUNITA BINTI ZAKARIA/// Abdul Rashid,Elmutaz Atta Awad In developing countries, Escherichia coli and Campylobacter jejuni were found to be the prominent bacterial causes of gastroenteritis in human gastroenteritis, and they also showed an increased trend towards antibiotic resistance. Thus, the study aimed to determine the occurrence of E. coli and C. jejuni in wild birds, chickens, human and environment in villages in Perak and to determine the antibiotic resistance amongst E. coli and C. jejuni isolates. Three Orang Asli villages in Perak were chosen. Wild birds were trapped from nearby areas of the villages. We collected 52 human stool samples, 40 cloacal swabs from wild birds and 42 from chickens. For the environment, samples were collected from water (40 samples), flies (40 samples) and soil (40 samples). Two (5%) flies and 16 (38.1%) chickens were found positive for C. jejuni. Also, a total of 50 (96.2%) humans, 40 (100%) birds, 40 (95.2%) chickens were positive for E. coli and 111 (92.5%) of the 120 environmental samples tested positive for E. coli. The disk diffusion method was employed to determine the susceptibility of C. jejuni and E. coli isolates against ten antibiotics. All of the E. coli (100%) and C. jejuni (66%) isolates were found resistance towards at least one antibiotic. Hundred percent (100%) of the E. coli isolates obtained from wild birds were found to show multidrug resistance (MDR). Campylobacter jejuni isolates from flies and chickens showed high resistance towards nalidixic acid.

Aims: Campylobacter is a major cause of gastroenteritis in humans worldwide, particularly in developed countries and is reported to show an increased trend in antibiotic resistance. The purpose of this study was to determine the occurrence of Campylobacter in wild birds, poultry and in poultry environments in Selangor, Malaysia as well as to determine the rate of antibiotic resistance among Campylobacter isolates from poultry and wild birds. Methodology and results: The wild birds were trapped near poultry farm areas and in open areas which were more than 5 km away from poultry farms (referred to as open environment). Of 57 birds trapped near the farm's environment, 17.5% were positive for Campylobacter and out of these, 90% were C. jejuni. Of a total of 77 birds in the open environment, 22.1% were positive for Campylobacter and 88.7% were C. jejuni. The poultry farms consisted of 3 chicken and 2 duck farms. About 60% of the chickens and 44.8% of the ducks were positive for Campylobacter of which 80% were C. jejuni, while 20% were C. coli. The Campylobacter isolates were subjected to antibiotic susceptibility test using disk diffusion method against 12 antibiotics. All the isolates (100%) from wild birds around poultry houses were resistant to at least one antibiotic. Conclusion, significance and impact of study: The findings showed 93% of the isolates from wild birds were resistant to at least two antibiotics. Campylobacter isolates from poultry in the farms were resistant to at least one antibiotic. The antibiotic resistant Campylobacter is of public health importance.

The growing demand of edible bird’s nest (EBN) worldwide as well as competition from neighbouring countries has made the EBN industry one of the rising industries in Malaysia with stringent exportation requirement by China. However, as majority of the EBN products in the market is in commercialised form, studies on the nutritional composition of these commercialised EBN in comparison with farmed, raw EBN are limited. The farmed EBN samples were taken from 4 different regions of Malaysia: Perak (central), Kelantan (eastern), Johor (southern) and Sarawak (west Borneo) while the commercialised sample was obtained from a local drug store. Proximate, amino acid and elemental composition were performed on these EBNs. Farmed EBNs mainly comprised protein followed by carbohydrate while the commercialised EBN had similar protein and carbohydrate composition. The total collection of essential amino acid in commercialised EBN was higher (237.9 mg/g protein) compared to the farmed EBN which was between 156.81 − 236.6 mg amino acid/g protein. Among the essential amino acids, valine was found to be highest in both commercialised and farmed EBN. The differences between the nutritional compositions of EBNs could be due to the process of commercialisation of the EBN as well as seasonal, breeding sites and diet of the swiftlets. Farmed EBN therefore can be considered to be more nutritional due to higher protein levels.

The growing demand of edible bird’s nest (EBN) worldwide as well as competition from neighbouring countries has made the EBN industry one of the rising industries in Malaysia with stringent exportation requirement by China. However, as majority of the EBN products in the market is in commercialised form, studies on the nutritional composition of these commercialised EBN in comparison with farmed, raw EBN are limited. The farmed EBN samples were taken from 4 different regions of Malaysia: Perak (central), Kelantan (eastern), Johor (southern) and Sarawak (west Borneo) while the commercialised sample was obtained from a local drug store. Proximate, amino acid and elemental composition were performed on these EBNs. Farmed EBNs mainly comprised protein followed by carbohydrate while the commercialised EBN had similar protein and carbohydrate composition. The total collection of essential amino acid in commercialised EBN was higher (237.9 mg/g protein) compared to the farmed EBN which was between 156.81 − 236.6 mg amino acid/g protein. Among the essential amino acids, valine was found to be highest in both commercialised and farmed EBN. The differences between the nutritional compositions of EBNs could be due to the process of commercialisation of the EBN as well as seasonal, breeding sites and diet of the swiftlets. Farmed EBN therefore can be considered to be more nutritional due to higher protein levels.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is vector-borne zoonotic disease which causes encephalitis in humans and horses. Clinical signs for Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection are not clearly evident in the majority of affected animals. In Malaysia, information on the prevalence of JEV infection has not been established. Thus, a cross-sectional study was conducted during two periods, December 2015 to January 2016 and March to August in 2016, to determine the prevalence and risk factors in JEV infections among animals and birds in Peninsular Malaysia. Serum samples were harvested from the 416 samples which were collected from the dogs, cats, water birds, village chicken, jungle fowls, long-tailed macaques, domestic pigs, and cattle in the states of Selangor, Perak, Perlis, Kelantan, and Pahang. The serum samples were screened for JEV antibodies by commercial IgG ELISA kits. A questionnaire was also distributed to obtain information on the animals, birds, and the environmental factors of sampling areas. The results showed that dogs had the highest seropositive rate of 80% (95% CI: ± 11.69) followed by pigs at 44.4% (95% CI: ± 1.715), cattle at 32.2% (95% CI: ± 1.058), birds at 28.9% (95% CI: ± 5.757), cats at 15.6% (95% CI: ± 7.38), and monkeys at 14.3% (95% CI: ± 1.882). The study also showed that JEV seropositivity was high in young animals and in areas where mosquito vectors and migrating birds were prevalent.

Capon is the surgical removal of testes from roosters which promotes the accumulation of intramuscular fat and affects fatty acid composition of poultry meat. We report effect of caponization on muscle, liver and adipose tissue fatty acid composition, lipid peroxidation and cholesterol content in breast muscle of broilers. Groups of 30 male 1-d old commercial Cobb 500 broilers were caponized at 21 days of age. Controls were 30 intact birds. Each treatment group consisted of 6 replicates (cages) with 5 birds in each cage. Broilers were fed commercial feed and slaughtered at 40 days. Major fatty acids in breast muscle and adipose tissue were oleic (C18:1, n-9), palmitic (C16:0) and linoleic (C18:2, n-6) and stearic (C18:0). Caponization did not affect fatty acid composition of muscle, liver or adipose tissues or lipid peroxidation of meat. However, we did find lower (P < 0.018) cholesterol (0.66 ± 0.02mg/ml) in breast muscle from caponized birds (n=9) compared with 9 intact controls (0.77 ± 0.04mg/ml). Our findings suggest that caponization does not affect free fatty acid composition or lipid peroxidation but may reduce cholesterol in tissues of broilers.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is vector-borne zoonotic disease which causes encephalitis in humans and horses. Clinical signs for Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection are not clearly evident in the majority of affected animals. In Malaysia, information on the prevalence of JEV infection has not been established. Thus, a cross-sectional study was conducted during two periods, December 2015 to January 2016 and March to August in 2016, to determine the prevalence and risk factors in JEV infections among animals and birds in Peninsular Malaysia. Serum samples were harvested from the 416 samples which were collected from the dogs, cats, water birds, village chicken, jungle fowls, long-tailed macaques, domestic pigs, and cattle in the states of Selangor, Perak, Perlis, Kelantan, and Pahang. The serum samples were screened for JEV antibodies by commercial IgG ELISA kits. A questionnaire was also distributed to obtain information on the animals, birds, and the environmental factors of sampling areas. The results showed that dogs had the highest seropositive rate of 80% (95% CI: ± 11.69) followed by pigs at 44.4% (95% CI: ± 1.715), cattle at 32.2% (95% CI: ± 1.058), birds at 28.9% (95% CI: ± 5.757), cats at 15.6% (95% CI: ± 7.38), and monkeys at 14.3% (95% CI: ± 1.882). The study also showed that JEV seropositivity was high in young animals and in areas where mosquito vectors and migrating birds were prevalent.

Capon is the surgical removal of testes from roosters which promotes the accumulation of intramuscular fat and affects fatty acid composition of poultry meat. We report effect of caponization on muscle, liver and adipose tissue fatty acid composition, lipid peroxidation and cholesterol content in breast muscle of broilers. Groups of 30 male 1-d old commercial Cobb 500 broilers were caponized at 21 days of age. Controls were 30 intact birds. Each treatment group consisted of 6 replicates (cages) with 5 birds in each cage. Broilers were fed commercial feed and slaughtered at 40 days. Major fatty acids in breast muscle and adipose tissue were oleic (C18:1, n-9), palmitic (C16:0) and linoleic (C18:2, n-6) and stearic (C18:0). Caponization did not affect fatty acid composition of muscle, liver or adipose tissues or lipid peroxidation of meat. However, we did find lower (P < 0.018) cholesterol (0.66 ± 0.02mg/ml) in breast muscle from caponized birds (n=9) compared with 9 intact controls (0.77 ± 0.04mg/ml). Our findings suggest that caponization does not affect free fatty acid composition or lipid peroxidation but may reduce cholesterol in tissues of broilers.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a vector-borne zoonotic disease caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). It causes encephalitis in human and horses, and may lead to reproductive failure in sows. The first human encephalitis case in Malaya (now Malaysia) was reported during World War II in a British prison in 1942. Later, encephalitis was observed among race horses in Singapore. In 1951, the first JEV was isolated from the brain of an encephalitis patient. The true storyline of JE exposure among humans and animals has not been documented in Malaysia. In some places such as Sarawak, JEV has been isolated from mosquitoes before an outbreak in 1992. JE is an epidemic in Malaysia except Sarawak. There are four major outbreaks reported in Pulau Langkawi (1974), Penang (1988), Perak and Negeri Sembilan (1998–1999), and Sarawak (1992). JE is considered endemic only in Sarawak. Initially, both adults and children were victims of JE in Malaysia, however, according to the current reports; JE infection is only lethal to children in Malaysia. This paper describes a timeline of JE cases (background of each case) from first detection to current status, vaccination programs against JE, diagnostic methods used in hospitals and factors which may contribute to the transmission of JE among humans and animals in Malaysia.

Avian polyomavirus (APV) primarily affects young birds and can cause mortality in a wide range of psittacine birds. This is the first study to detect the presence of APV in Malaysia. A total of 85 faecal samples were collected from symptom-free psittacines species from four different breeders in the Klang Valley. Upon genomic DNA extraction, the presence of APV was analysed by PCR using primers APVfull-AF (5'- ACAATGCCTAACGGAACGCC-3') and APVfull-AR (5'-CACCGAAGCGGCGATACTATA-3'). Positive results of 3 kbp PCR amplicon were detected in six out of the 30 samples (20%), which were from yellow-collared macaws, blue-headed parrots, red-crowned macaws, sulphur-crested cockatoos, blue-throated macaws, and Pesquet's parrots. As a conclusion, the prevalence of APV was clearly indicated.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a vector-borne zoonotic disease caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). It causes encephalitis in human and horses, and may lead to reproductive failure in sows. The first human encephalitis case in Malaya (now Malaysia) was reported during World War II in a British prison in 1942. Later, encephalitis was observed among race horses in Singapore. In 1951, the first JEV was isolated from the brain of an encephalitis patient. The true storyline of JE exposure among humans and animals has not been documented in Malaysia. In some places such as Sarawak, JEV has been isolated from mosquitoes before an outbreak in 1992. JE is an epidemic in Malaysia except Sarawak. There are four major outbreaks reported in Pulau Langkawi (1974), Penang (1988), Perak and Negeri Sembilan (1998–1999), and Sarawak (1992). JE is considered endemic only in Sarawak. Initially, both adults and children were victims of JE in Malaysia, however, according to the current reports; JE infection is only lethal to children in Malaysia. This paper describes a timeline of JE cases (background of each case) from first detection to current status, vaccination programs against JE, diagnostic methods used in hospitals and factors which may contribute to the transmission of JE among humans and animals in Malaysia.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the presence of fungal organisms in the pigeon droppings in selected areas in Hulu Langat & Kuala Langat, Selangor. The study demonstrated that pigeon droppings can be the platform for fungal growth and flourish. The fungal infection poses a significant public health threat as it can affect immunocompetent individuals and animals. Fifty samples of fresh pigeon droppings were obtained from exotic pigeons at the sampling area. Samples were transported to the Bacteriology laboratory in Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia and were immediately processed within 24 hours. Samples were cultures onto Sabouraud’s Dextrose agar and incubated at 37o C for 15 days. Identification of cultures was determined using Gram staining and API 20 C AUX identification test kits. Out of fifty samples, Candida species (88%), Trichosporon species (28%) and Saccharomyces species (6%) were isolated. In addition, mold fungi were also identified which include Aspergillus species (18%), Trichophyton species (6%), Mucor species (4%), Medurella species (1%) and Penicillium species (1%). This shows that the pigeons carry potential role as a reservoir for zoonotic yeasts and mold in the environment.

Avian polyomavirus (APV) primarily affects young birds and can cause mortality in a wide range of psittacine birds. This is the first study to detect the presence of APV in Malaysia. A total of 85 faecal samples were collected from symptom-free psittacines species from four different breeders in the Klang Valley. Upon genomic DNA extraction, the presence of APV was analysed by PCR using primers APVfull-AF (5'- ACAATGCCTAACGGAACGCC-3') and APVfull-AR (5'-CACCGAAGCGGCGATACTATA-3'). Positive results of 3 kbp PCR amplicon were detected in six out of the 30 samples (20%), which were from yellow-collared macaws, blue-headed parrots, red-crowned macaws, sulphur-crested cockatoos, blue-throated macaws, and Pesquet's parrots. As a conclusion, the prevalence of APV was clearly indicated.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the presence of fungal organisms in the pigeon droppings in selected areas in Hulu Langat & Kuala Langat, Selangor. The study demonstrated that pigeon droppings can be the platform for fungal growth and flourish. The fungal infection poses a significant public health threat as it can affect immunocompetent individuals and animals. Fifty samples of fresh pigeon droppings were obtained from exotic pigeons at the sampling area. Samples were transported to the Bacteriology laboratory in Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia and were immediately processed within 24 hours. Samples were cultures onto Sabouraud’s Dextrose agar and incubated at 37o C for 15 days. Identification of cultures was determined using Gram staining and API 20 C AUX identification test kits. Out of fifty samples, Candida species (88%), Trichosporon species (28%) and Saccharomyces species (6%) were isolated. In addition, mold fungi were also identified which include Aspergillus species (18%), Trichophyton species (6%), Mucor species (4%), Medurella species (1%) and Penicillium species (1%). This shows that the pigeons carry potential role as a reservoir for zoonotic yeasts and mold in the environment.