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The James Webb Space Telescope's NIRSpec instrument will unveil the nature of exoplanet atmospheres across the wealth of planet types, from temperate terrestrial worlds to ultrahot Jupiters. In particular, the 0.6-5.3 micron PRISM mode is especially well-suited for efficient spectroscopic exoplanet observations spanning a number of important spectral features. We analyze a lab-measured NIRSpec PRISM mode Bright Object Time Series (BOTS) observation from the perspective of a JWST user to understand the instrument performance and detector properties. We create two realistic transiting exoplanet time series observations by performing injection-recovery tests on the lab-measured data to quantify the effects of real instrument jitter, drift, intrapixel sensitivity variations, and 1/$f$ noise on measured transmission spectra. By fitting the time series systematics simultaneously with the injected transit, we can obtain more realistic transit depth uncertainties that take into account noise sources that are currently not modeled by traditional exposure time calculators. We find that sources of systematic noise related to intrapixel sensitivity variations and PSF motions are apparent in the data at the level of a few hundred ppm, but can be effectively detrended using a low-order polynomial with detector position. We recover the injected spectral features of GJ 436 b and TRAPPIST-1 d, and place a 3-sigma upper limit on the detector noise floor of 14 ppm. We find that the noise floor is consistent with <10 ppm at the 1.7-sigma level, which bodes well for future observations of challenging targets with faint atmospheric signatures.

The James Webb Space Telescope's NIRSpec instrument will unveil the nature of exoplanet atmospheres across the wealth of planet types, from temperate terrestrial worlds to ultrahot Jupiters. In particular, the 0.6-5.3 micron PRISM mode is especially well-suited for efficient spectroscopic exoplanet observations spanning a number of important spectral features. We analyze a lab-measured NIRSpec PRISM mode Bright Object Time Series (BOTS) observation from the perspective of a JWST user to understand the instrument performance and detector properties. We create two realistic transiting exoplanet time series observations by performing injection-recovery tests on the lab-measured data to quantify the effects of real instrument jitter, drift, intrapixel sensitivity variations, and 1/$f$ noise on measured transmission spectra. By fitting the time series systematics simultaneously with the injected transit, we can obtain more realistic transit depth uncertainties that take into account noise sources that are currently not modeled by traditional exposure time calculators. We find that sources of systematic noise related to intrapixel sensitivity variations and PSF motions are apparent in the data at the level of a few hundred ppm, but can be effectively detrended using a low-order polynomial with detector position. We recover the injected spectral features of GJ 436 b and TRAPPIST-1 d, and place a 3-sigma upper limit on the detector noise floor of 14 ppm. We find that the noise floor is consistent with <10 ppm at the 1.7-sigma level, which bodes well for future observations of challenging targets with faint atmospheric signatures.

At the cloud top level of Venus (65-70 km altitude) the atmosphere rotates 60 times faster than the underlying surface, a phenomenon known as superrotation. Whereas on Venus's dayside the cloud top motions are well determined and Venus general circulation models predict a mean zonal flow at the upper clouds similar on both day and nightside, the nightside circulation remains poorly studied except for the polar region. Here we report global measurements of the nightside circulation at the upper cloud level. We tracked individual features in thermal emission images at 3.8 and 5.0 $\mathrm{\mu m}$ obtained between 2006 and 2008 by the Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS-M) onboard Venus Express and in 2015 by ground-based measurements with the Medium-Resolution 0.8-5.5 Micron Spectrograph and Imager (SpeX) at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Infrared Telescope Facility (NASA/IRTF). The zonal motions range from -110 to -60 m s$^{-1}$, consistent with those found for the dayside but with larger dispersion. Slow motions (-50 to -20 m s$^{-1}$) were also found and remain unexplained. In addition, abundant stationary wave patterns with zonal speeds from -10 to +10 m s$^{-1}$ dominate the night upper clouds and concentrate over the regions of higher surface elevation., Comment: 15 pages, 4 figures, 6 supplementary figures

At the cloud top level of Venus (65-70 km altitude) the atmosphere rotates 60 times faster than the underlying surface, a phenomenon known as superrotation. Whereas on Venus's dayside the cloud top motions are well determined and Venus general circulation models predict a mean zonal flow at the upper clouds similar on both day and nightside, the nightside circulation remains poorly studied except for the polar region. Here we report global measurements of the nightside circulation at the upper cloud level. We tracked individual features in thermal emission images at 3.8 and 5.0 $\mathrm{\mu m}$ obtained between 2006 and 2008 by the Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS-M) onboard Venus Express and in 2015 by ground-based measurements with the Medium-Resolution 0.8-5.5 Micron Spectrograph and Imager (SpeX) at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Infrared Telescope Facility (NASA/IRTF). The zonal motions range from -110 to -60 m s$^{-1}$, consistent with those found for the dayside but with larger dispersion. Slow motions (-50 to -20 m s$^{-1}$) were also found and remain unexplained. In addition, abundant stationary wave patterns with zonal speeds from -10 to +10 m s$^{-1}$ dominate the night upper clouds and concentrate over the regions of higher surface elevation., Comment: 15 pages, 4 figures, 6 supplementary figures

Observations of Uranus were made on the 8/9th November with HST/WFC3 at a time when a huge cloud complex was present at 30 - 40N. We imaged Uranus in seven filters spanning 467 - 924 nm, and analysed these observations with the NEMESIS radiative-transfer and retrieval code. The same system was also observed in the H-band with VLT/SINFONI ON 31st October and 11th November (Irwin et al., 2016). To constrain the background cloud particle sizes and scattering properties we conducted a limb-darkening analysis of the background cloud structure at 30-40N by simultaneously fitting: a) these HST/OPAL observations at a range of zenith angles; b) the VLT/SINFONI observations at a range of zenith angles; and c) IRTF/SpeX observations made in 2009 (Irwin et al., 2015). We find that the observations are well modelled with a three-component cloud comprised of: 1) a vertically thin, but optically thick 'deep' tropospheric cloud at a pressure of ~2 bars; 2) a methane-ice cloud at the methane-condensation level with variable vertical extent; and 3) a vertically extended tropospheric haze. We find that the particles sizes in both haze and tropospheric cloud have an effective radius of ~0.1 micron, although we cannot rule out larger particle sizes in the tropospheric cloud. We find that the particles in both the tropospheric cloud and haze are more scattering at short wavelengths, giving them a blue colour, but are more absorbing at longer wavelengths, especially for the tropospheric haze. For the particles in the storm clouds, which we assume to be composed of methane ice particles, we find that their mean radii must be ~0.5 micron. We find that the high clouds have low integrated opacity, and that "streamers" reminiscent of thunderstorm anvils are confined to levels deeper than 1 bar. These results argue against vigorous moist convective origins for the cloud features., Comment: 57 pages, 21 figures, 3 tables

Signatures of "evaporative" winds from exo-planets on short (hot) orbits around their host star have been observed in a number of systems. In this paper we present global AMR simulations that track the launching of the winds, their expansion through the circumstellar environment, and their interaction with a stellar wind. We focus on purely hydrodynamic flows including the anisotropy of the wind launching and explore the orbital/fluid dynamics of the resulting flows in detail. In particular we find that a combination of the tidal and Coriolis forces strongly distorts the planetary "Parker" wind creating "up-orbit" and "down-orbit" streams. We characterize the flows in terms of their orbital elements which change depending on their launch position on the planet. We find that the anisotropy in the atmospheric temperature leads to significant backflow on to the planet. The planetary wind interacts strongly with the stellar wind creating instabilities that cause eventual deposition of planetary gas onto the star. We present synthetic observations of both transit and absorption line-structure for our simulations. For our initial conditions, we find that the orbiting wind material produces absorption signatures at significant distances from the planet and substantial orbit to orbit variability. Ly-{\alpha} absorption shows red and blueshifted features out to 70 km/s. Finally, using semi-analytic models we constrain the effect of radiation pressure, given the approximation of uniform stellar absorption., Comment: 17 pages, 14 figures

Observations of Uranus were made on the 8/9th November with HST/WFC3 at a time when a huge cloud complex was present at 30 - 40N. We imaged Uranus in seven filters spanning 467 - 924 nm, and analysed these observations with the NEMESIS radiative-transfer and retrieval code. The same system was also observed in the H-band with VLT/SINFONI ON 31st October and 11th November (Irwin et al., 2016). To constrain the background cloud particle sizes and scattering properties we conducted a limb-darkening analysis of the background cloud structure at 30-40N by simultaneously fitting: a) these HST/OPAL observations at a range of zenith angles; b) the VLT/SINFONI observations at a range of zenith angles; and c) IRTF/SpeX observations made in 2009 (Irwin et al., 2015). We find that the observations are well modelled with a three-component cloud comprised of: 1) a vertically thin, but optically thick 'deep' tropospheric cloud at a pressure of ~2 bars; 2) a methane-ice cloud at the methane-condensation level with variable vertical extent; and 3) a vertically extended tropospheric haze. We find that the particles sizes in both haze and tropospheric cloud have an effective radius of ~0.1 micron, although we cannot rule out larger particle sizes in the tropospheric cloud. We find that the particles in both the tropospheric cloud and haze are more scattering at short wavelengths, giving them a blue colour, but are more absorbing at longer wavelengths, especially for the tropospheric haze. For the particles in the storm clouds, which we assume to be composed of methane ice particles, we find that their mean radii must be ~0.5 micron. We find that the high clouds have low integrated opacity, and that "streamers" reminiscent of thunderstorm anvils are confined to levels deeper than 1 bar. These results argue against vigorous moist convective origins for the cloud features., Comment: 57 pages, 21 figures, 3 tables

Signatures of "evaporative" winds from exo-planets on short (hot) orbits around their host star have been observed in a number of systems. In this paper we present global AMR simulations that track the launching of the winds, their expansion through the circumstellar environment, and their interaction with a stellar wind. We focus on purely hydrodynamic flows including the anisotropy of the wind launching and explore the orbital/fluid dynamics of the resulting flows in detail. In particular we find that a combination of the tidal and Coriolis forces strongly distorts the planetary "Parker" wind creating "up-orbit" and "down-orbit" streams. We characterize the flows in terms of their orbital elements which change depending on their launch position on the planet. We find that the anisotropy in the atmospheric temperature leads to significant backflow on to the planet. The planetary wind interacts strongly with the stellar wind creating instabilities that cause eventual deposition of planetary gas onto the star. We present synthetic observations of both transit and absorption line-structure for our simulations. For our initial conditions, we find that the orbiting wind material produces absorption signatures at significant distances from the planet and substantial orbit to orbit variability. Ly-{\alpha} absorption shows red and blueshifted features out to 70 km/s. Finally, using semi-analytic models we constrain the effect of radiation pressure, given the approximation of uniform stellar absorption., Comment: 17 pages, 14 figures

M-stars comprise 80% of main-sequence stars, and so their planetary systems provide the best chance for finding habitable planets, i.e.: those with surface liquid water. We have modelled the broadband albedo or reflectivity of water ice and snow for simulated planetary surfaces orbiting two observed red dwarf stars (or M-stars) using spectrally resolved data of the Earth's cryosphere. The gradual reduction of the albedos of snow and ice at wavelengths greater than 1 ?m, combined with M-stars emitting a significant fraction of their radiation at these same longer wavelengths, mean that the albedos of ice and snow on planets orbiting M-stars are much lower than their values on Earth. Our results imply that the ice/snow albedo climate feedback is significantly weaker for planets orbiting M-stars than for planets orbiting G-type stars such as the Sun. In addition, planets with significant ice and snow cover will have significantly higher surface temperatures for a given stellar flux if the spectral variation of cryospheric albedo is considered, which in turn implies that the outer edge of the habitable zone around M-stars may be 10-30% further away from the parent star than previously thought., Comment: Final accepted by Astrobiology, 20 pages (double spaced), 3 figures included

M-stars comprise 80% of main-sequence stars, and so their planetary systems provide the best chance for finding habitable planets, i.e.: those with surface liquid water. We have modelled the broadband albedo or reflectivity of water ice and snow for simulated planetary surfaces orbiting two observed red dwarf stars (or M-stars) using spectrally resolved data of the Earth's cryosphere. The gradual reduction of the albedos of snow and ice at wavelengths greater than 1 ?m, combined with M-stars emitting a significant fraction of their radiation at these same longer wavelengths, mean that the albedos of ice and snow on planets orbiting M-stars are much lower than their values on Earth. Our results imply that the ice/snow albedo climate feedback is significantly weaker for planets orbiting M-stars than for planets orbiting G-type stars such as the Sun. In addition, planets with significant ice and snow cover will have significantly higher surface temperatures for a given stellar flux if the spectral variation of cryospheric albedo is considered, which in turn implies that the outer edge of the habitable zone around M-stars may be 10-30% further away from the parent star than previously thought., Comment: Final accepted by Astrobiology, 20 pages (double spaced), 3 figures included