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Headwater streams have some of the best quality water in the country (Dissmeyer 2000). Because headwaters eventually flow into other downstream water bodies like rivers and lakes, they are important places to focus research and conservation efforts. All streams in this study had good water quality based on several assessments of macroinvertebrate communities. 1. Judging from metrics of abundance, richness, EPT, and HBI, all study streams had very good water quality. Thirty-nine total families were observed among the three streams. Whittier Stream was the least healthy of the three, most likely as a result of human disturbances such as a road crossing, fishpond, and mill remnants. It is probable these habitat alterations are having an effect on downstream benthic communities. 2. The riparian zone of each stream was forested and stable, but there were some eroding banks at some points along the study reaches. The abundance of sensitive macroinvertebrates (measured using representative Orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera) increased with increasing percent canopy cover and decreased with high percentages of sand characterizing the streambed. 3. Macroinvertebrates can be categorized into functional feeding groups based on feeding behavior. Shredders should hypothetically be in high abundance in headwater streams due to high riparian organic matter inputs. However, observed shredders were limited. This may be due to seasonal changes in functional feeding group ratios. In addition, all study streams had a predator/prey ratio that was higher than the ratio expected for a typical stream, which suggests that there might be an abundance of prey biomass in the study stream headwaters. 4. Based on results from stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen, most macroinvertebrates within the study streams seem to be omnivorous. The most complex food web was observed at Stony Brook. Food webs of Beaver Brook and Stony Brook showed similar trophic clustering, a pattern that might be indicative of streams with excellent water quality.

Sharks are important predators in marine ecosystems. In the past few decades, there has been a documented loss in abundance of sharks across the globe. Although the trends are clear, there has been no study of shark population decline specifically in New England. The goal of this project was to explore the historical abundances of sharks in New England from 1820-1930 and the historical context of sharks during that time period. I used historical documents concerning fisheries to catalog the number of references containing incidental sightings and captures of sharks. I coded historical anecdotes about sharks to determine changes in relative abundances sharks during the period from 1820- 1930. Ten species of large sharks were present in New England from 1820-1930. The abundances and distribution of sightings varied throughout New England, with the highest sighting abundance and in Massachusetts. From 1882-1924, there appeared to be a slight decline in the relative abundance of large sharks in New England. Further studies could be done to increase the amount of data describing historical shark abundances in New England.

Colonization, which is the process of a species spreading to a new habitat, provides species with the opportunity to take advantage of areas in which their niches are either not currently or minimally exploited. To explore the evolutionary genetics of colonization, we examined the population genetics of 16 Iris versicolor (blue flag iris) populations in and around the Bay of Fundy. The use of microsatellites, short segments of DNA composed of one to four base pair repeats, allowed us to analyze relationships in and among iris populations. Multiple primer pairs were developed, including eight primer pairs that showed evidence of fixed heterozygosity, a common characteristic of allopolyploids such as I. versicolor. Three primer pairs were chosen for this study because they consistently amplified genetically variable regions. I. versicolor samples revealed high heterozygosity for all three primer pairs scored. Mainland populations were found to have higher genetic diversity than island populations. Among island populations, genetic diversity increased with island size. Island populations were more genetically diverged than mainland populations. No correlation was found between geographic distance and genetic distance in examined I. versicolor samples. These findings reveal that although island populations experienced a genetic bottleneck following colonization, they were able to retain a large portion of their genetic diversity.

Choline is essential to the development and function of the central nervous system. Supplemental choline is neuroprotective against a variety of insults, including neurotoxins like dizocilpine (MK-801). MK-801 is an NMDA receptor antagonist that is frequently used in rodent models of psychological disorders. At low doses, it causes cognitive impairments, and at higher doses it induces motor deficits, anhedonia, and neuronal degeneration. The primary goals of the present study were to investigate whether prenatal choline supplementation protects against the cognitive impairments, motor deficits, and neuropathologies that are precipitated by MK-801 administration in adulthood. Adult male Sprague Dawley rats were fed either a standard or supplemented choline diet prenatally. Using the novelty preference test of object recognition, we examined three aspects of memory in relation to choline and MK-801: encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. Our first main finding was that choline protected memory consolidation; presently, we are not able to draw clear conclusions regarding memory encoding and retrieval, as control rats did not exhibit the expected patterns. We also observed that choline alleviated the motor response to MK-801, particularly ataxia. Using doublecortin to mark neurogenesis in the hippocampus and Fluoro-Jade B to mark degenerating axons in the anterior commissure, we found that this prenatal choline supplementation, in the face of MK-801 toxicity, protects against reduced hippocampal neurogenesis and may prevent neurodegeneration. Taken together, the current findings suggest that prenatal choline supplementation protects against a variety of behavioral and neural pathologies induced by the neurotoxin MK-801. This research contributes to the growing body of evidence supporting the robust neuroprotective capacity of choline.

Amphibian populations have been declining for several decades, in part due to the emerging fungal skin disease, chytridiomycosis, caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Chytridiomycosis has caused extinctions and extirpations in many parts of the world, but its influence varies across species, populations, and individuals. The Green Frog (Lithobates clamitans), which inhabits the eastern half of the United States, seems capable of sustaining Bd infections without experiencing die-offs. It is possible that the Green Frog's epibiotic bacteria are contributing to its defense against Bd as the epibiotic bacteria of several amphibian species are known to play a role in the amphibian innate immune system through the production of antifungal metabolites. This study sampled three populations of L. clamitans in Maine, and screened individuals for the presence of both Bd infection and epibiotic bacteria capable of inhibiting Bd growth. In each population, 25-40% of individuals were infected with Bd, all of which sustained low infection intensities of less than 10 zoospore equivalents. All individuals possessed at least one strain of anti-Bd bacteria. Of the 78 strains of epibiotic bacteria assayed, the metabolites of 72 inhibited Bd growth to some degree, and 38 completely inhibited Bd growth. Three inhibitory bacterial strains were identified through sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene and all were classified as Proteobacteria. The large proportion of anti-Bd bacteria isolated from L. clamitans in this study suggests that epibiotic bacteria likely play a role in defending individuals of the species against chytridiomycosis. In the future, anti-Bd epibiotic bacteria could be used in probiotics as an amphibian conservation strategy.

Maternal consumption of alcohol may subject the fetus to fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FAS or FASD). FAS/D is a public health problem, and affected children are defined by varying degrees of irreversible mental retardation, physical defects, behavioral issues, and vision problems from prenatal alcohol exposure (Riley et al. 2011). Recent studies on FAS have looked towards animal models, such as zebrafish, Danio rerio, that exhibit homologous physical and behavioral effects of alcohol (Bilotta et al. 2004). I exposed zebrafish embryos to low doses of ethanol (0.5% v/v or 1% v/v) in either chronic (at least 8 h of exposure) or acute (1 or 4 h of exposure; up to four times before hatching) patterns at different points during development. I tested the hypothesis that the effects of the ethanol exposure on the morphology, function, and behavior of zebrafish vary depending on the exposure period and stage of development, and that the severity of physical, functional, and behavioral differences in ethanol exposed groups are related to ethanol concentration. The results show that embryonic exposure to low doses of ethanol indeed affects the morphology, function, and behavior of larval zebrafish. Embryos in chronic exposure treatments exhibited differences in morphology in a dose dependent and stage specific manner, and in physiology regardless of morphological differences. Embryos in acute exposure treatments exhibited differences in morphology in a dose and somewhat frequency dependent manner; physiology of these zebrafish was affected regardless of morphological differences. Results from one acute treatment group suggests there is a threshold at which low doses of ethanol for short durations or at specific stages of development would not physiologically or morphologically affect the zebrafish. Behavioral data on one chronic treatment group demonstrated increased preference for lit environments, which may reflect eye function.

Particle size, phase, and transition metals have all been implicated in natural and engineered silica-induced respiratory effects, as well as cellular interactions. However, efforts to unambiguously determine their role in the pro-inflammatory mechanism induction have been hampered due to the use of inhomogeneous samples, with incomplete characterization and the use of high cytotoxic doses. Here, engineered micro- and nano- sized silica particles, which are more homogenous in their materials properties and used in a variety of applications, were characterized and compared to natural silica at a realistic dose level. Natural (2 æm) and engineered silica particles (2 æm and 50 nm) were characterized and controlled for size, morphology, phase, iron presence, surface area, and aggregation. A novel lipid peroxidation-dependent pro-inflammatory mechanism due to the influence of iron, particle size, and phase was hypothesized for these particles under a low non-cytotoxic dose closer to a realistic exposure regime. It was observed that at a 1 æg/ml low non-cytotoxic dose of silica the presence or addition of iron, reduction of particle size, and crystalline phase of natural silica significantly increased superoxide (O2.- ) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production in the macrophages. This increase in O2.- and H2O2 production, further lead to phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipase C (PC-PLC) - mediated inflammatory mediator or cytokine production in macrophages via lipid peroxidation and lipid raft disruption (large fraction sub-domains of plasma membrane involved in signal transduction). Addition of an iron chelator abrogated these responses, supporting the role of iron in the hypothesized mechanism. Activation of PC-PLC - induced inflammatory response was determined by using PC-PLC inhibitor, Tricychodecan-9-yl-xanthate, which blocked the inflammatory mediator production. Microscopy studies with cell-particle interaction revealed that particle size also influenced the uptake of silica particles in the macrophages mainly via phagocytosis, since binding and activation of membrane receptors and subsequent internalization is strongly dependent on nanoparticle size. Also, a high cytotoxic dose of 100 æg/ml showed macrophage particle overload for both particle sizes, with macrophage damage possibly leading to catastrophic release of inflammatory mediators that could obfuscate study of the normal inflammatory response, emphasizing the need for studies with realistic exposure doses. In summary, this work demonstrated the role of particle size, iron, and phase in a lipid raft dependent-inflammatory mechanism induced by particles at a realistic exposure dose via PC-PLC. It should lead to a better understanding of the mechanism and important parameters for the particle-induced inflammatory response of the lungs, and therefore, control of the respiratory effects caused by real-life exposure to natural and engineered particles.

Patterns of dispersal and gene-flow in freshwater invertebrates have often been difficult to interpret. Despite the assumed high potential for dispersal, populations of freshwater invertebrates display high genetic differentiation over small distances. There have been several explanations posed for this gene flow dispersal paradox, including strong priority effects or low realized dispersal. This study explores the spatial genetic structure of the freshwater invertebrate Branchinecta lynchi, a threatened vernal pool inhabitant, at two scales with a goal to determine the scale at which gene flow is important in shaping these patterns. Vernal pools were sampled at two different localities the San Luis National Wildlife Refuge Complex and a preserve adjacent to the University of California, Merced. Individuals were genotyped using both the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I subunit (COI) and nuclear amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). Pairwise Fst values showed that genetic structure for this species was high, however, the only geographic pattern that emerged was isolation by distance at the local scale for the COI marker. Discrepancies between mitochondrial and AFLP markers may be explained several ways, including genotyping error, sex-biased dispersal and/or the longer time to equilibrium of the nuclear genome. These results suggest that gene flow is important at the local scale, at least for mitochondrial DNA, while historical colonization patterns are likely maintained at the regional scale by priority effects. I infer that maintaining connectivity among vernal pool complexes through local dispersal vectors should be a management priority.

Isotria medeoloides (Pursh) Raf. is a threatened orchid species with an Appalachian distribution in the eastern United States. There are only 150 populations, 67 of which are in Maine and New Hampshire. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service is attempting to preserve the species by protecting populations and potential colonization sites. Previous microsatellite analysis of fifteen populations throughout the species revealed low genetic diversity and high inbreeding. This study uses four microsatellite loci to determine gene flow, effective population sizes, and population size reductions among eighteen populations in order to identify genetically important sites. Results indicate that populations in the southern range of the species are severely reduced. The relatively diverse northern populations also show signs of population decline. A coalescent genealogy sampler revealed low gene flow with most populations sending and receiving less than one migrant per generation. Gene flow was especially low among small southern populations.

Competition is important in environments with limited resources. Males of many insect species are territorial and will defend resources, such as a food source or egg-laying site, against intruders, or even compete to attract a mate. In insects, evidence suggests that juvenile hormone acts as an aggression mediator, much like testosterone in other animal species. In this study I tested this idea using a group of male Painted Lady butterflies, Vanessa cardui, and Eastern Black Swallowtail butterflies, Papilio polyxenes, that were treated prior to metamorphosis with either a high or low dose of methoprene acid (a juvenile hormone mimic). Male-male encounters were staged with treated and untreated adults or males treated with a high dose or low dose to observe effects of hormone augmentation on aggression and territoriality. Hemolymph was sampled from larvae and analyzed for JH content using gas chromatography. In each encounter a female was positioned to witness the encounter; after a winner was determined, she was released and allowed to choose a male. Male V. cardui treated with either a high or low dose of methoprene were significantly more likely to win an encounter over a control male, and males given a high dose of methoprene were more likely to win an encounter over a male given a low dose. This result suggests that juvenile hormone influences the aggressive potential of male V. cardui butterflies. High mortality among adult P. polyxenes limited the experimental data collection for that species. Finally, females were not interested in males of any dosage and showed no preference. This suggests that females of V. cardui are not choosing males based on JH level or perhaps not in captivity.

Psychological Mechanisms in learning Mathematical Concepts: Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist, did theoretical and experimental work based on the idea that there is an invariant hierarchy of responses by which everyone acquires mathematical concepts. Basically we tried to use the geometric symmetry concept as a vehicle for studying this process of concept acquisition using subjects ranging in age from three to 25. They were asked to reproduce a series of stimulus "pictures," simple geometric patterns, which could be used without major alteration for each age group. Symmetric responses were divided into four types which were set up into a hierarchy of transformations involved in making the response. This method proved to be a good indicator of the subjects' capabilities. Typical tests made with children involved the notions of equivalence and conservation of matter. The child might be asked which of the two numbers, was greater, for example; or whether under a change of shape a volume remains constant when it might appear to change. We found that subjects' use of the symmetry notion was largely unconscious and some regressed in response to a more complex task without realizing it. Instead of using length and width to get the area of a rectangle, for example, a child might line up and count the smaller squares within, a mode that had proved successful earlier--perceiving no regression and assuming he was doing it the "right" way. Every inferential replication we did proved Piaget to be correct and the concept of hierarchy was perhaps the major idea that came through most clearly. There is an invariant sequence of events -- stages of operations or levels of sophistication -- through which anyone must progress in order to learn Mathematics.

The investigation of renal hypertension has led to the enzyme renin. At present renin can only be properly assayed by bioassay with a live animal which as been fitted in some manner with a device for measuring blood pressure. One common method is the rat assay. This assay requires careful anaesthesia, skilled surgical preparation of the animal, and several hours in which to complete the procedure, Even so, the assay in the hands of the most practiced technician has a precision of only 5 to 15%. It was the purpose of this senior scholar project to study several possible chemical methods of assay.

It has been clearly demonstrated that the barbels of Ameiurus nebulosus regenerate completely following amputation. The current investigations involve experimentation dealing primarily with determination of the mechanisms by which regeneration occurs. However, prior to conducting a series of experiments designed to elucidate the processes which initiate regeneration, several preliminary investigations to determine normal barbel structure and regeneration were made. Brain dissection of an adult catfish confirmed that innervation of the barbels is by both the fifth and seventh cranial nerves, and not solely by the seventh cranial nerve as suggested by Olmstead (1920). Further information regarding normal barbel innervation and structure was obtained from an histological examination of longitudinal and cross sections. The barbel is supported by a central cartilaginous axis, which is surrounded by a perichondrium. Enclosing the perichondrium is a layer of looser connective tissue, containing nerve fibers concentrated chiefly dorsal and ventral to the cartilage, and an artery. Interspersed among the squamous and cuboidal epithelial cells which cover the barbel are numerous taste buds and pigment calls. Because taste buds of two distinct shapes were observed, the possibility that there may be two types of sensory buds in the barbel cannot be overlooked. One undoubtedly serves the function of teste, while the other may be used for touch. Observation of the histological details of normal regeneration indicates that the wounded stub of an amputated barbel is healed within one day by a layer of squamous epithelial cells. Despite rapid healing, elongation of the regenerate does not commence until a blastema is formed, apparently from migrating perichondrial cells which deplete the perichondrium proximal to the amputation level. As the blastema cells undergo rapid proximo-diatal proliferation and the epidermal cells continue mitotic divisions, the barbel enters a period of rapid elongation. At 20°C regeneration proceeds at a rate of 1.0-1.5 mm. per week until the original dimensions have been regained. Regeneration is inhibited by colder temperatures, and 1s totally halted at 12°C. Because nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissue are not fully regenerated until the original length has been approximated, the regenerating barbel diameter is somewhat smaller than that of the original. To substantiate the conclusions drawn by histological observation of normal regenerating barbels, the barbels of many fish were subjected to abnormal treatments. The first treatment involved extirpation of the cartilaginous rod prior to amputation of the barbel in the affected region. The subsequent regeneration is abnormal and inhibited. In the absence of the cartilaginous rod and its surrounding perichondrium, no blastema forms and therefore little elongation occurs due to lack of physical pressure apparently exerted on the wound-healing epidermal and connective tissue cells by the proliferating and chondrifying blastema cells. Even without blastema formation, nerves, connective tissue, blood vessels, and epidermis, with its pigment cells and taste buds, regenerate. Sub-dermal and dermal connective tissue rapidly grow beneath the healed epidermis, but do not form a zone similar to, or part of, the blastema. Because the blastema does not develop without the presence of the cartilage and perichondrium, it appears that the blastema is derived primarily from perichondrial cells and to a limited extent from chondrocytes released from the severed cartilage. It further appears from observation of normally regenerating barbels that the blastema is initially derived from migrating rather than proliferating perichondrial cells. To determine if the blastem originates from migrating or dividing perichondrial cells, the fish were subjected to a second abnormal treatment. Regenerating barbels were injected with either mitomycin-C or aza-guanine to inhibit DNA synthesis, and thereby also to inhibit mitotic cell division. Although it was not possible to totally inhibit cell division without killing the fish, mitosis was significantly inhibited in many cases. Following antibiotic injection, the wound was healed as usual, but by an abnormally thin layer of epithelial cells. Although a few subdermal connective tissue cells penetrated between the cartilaginous tip and the wound epithelium, most of the cells were prevented from penetrating beneath the wound epithelium, and therefore accumulated proximal to the amputation point. Because the antibiotics apparently inhibited mitosis sufficiently to prevent formation of the space necessary to allow perichondrial cells to accumulate at the severed tip, the perichondrial cells also were sterically hindered from penetrating between the epidermis and the cartilage. However, unlike the case of the connective tissue cells where there was an abnormally large accumulation of cells immediately proximal to the level of amputation, there was no abnormal cell accumulation in the case of the perichondrial cells, indicating that they had not undergone even inhibited mitosis. It therefore appears that the perichondrial cells form the blastema by migration to the severed cartilaginous tip, rather than by proliferation. Further evidence in support of the hypothesis that the blastema is derived from migrating perichondrial cella was sought by a third treatment. Many fish were injected with various dosages of the vital dye trypan blue, which is specific for phagocytic cells. Intraventricular injection was unsuccessful because the fish died shortly after the injection, while intraperitoneal injection was also somewhat unsuccessful because only very small quantities of the dye reached even the base of the barbels, and almost none extended significantly into the barbels. Therefore, the destiny of the colored cells following amputation could not be traced because there were no colored cells as far distal as the excisions. Because it is felt that the basis for the trypan blue experiments is sound and that with improved injection technique, the experiment would be successful, the author intends to pursue the problem further. A fourth treatment, removal of barbel epidermis, was used to determine the origin of new epithelial cells. As an adaptive reaction to frequent natural abrasions in the epidermis, epidermal cells are capable of rapid proliferation, resulting in wound healing, by spreading over or into a wound area from its margins.

Incubation of bovine kidney homogenates with CdCl or ZnCl2 doubles their renin activity as measured by rat bioassay. It is suggested that the activation of renin by these divalent cations results from their interference with the renin inhibitor system described by Sen et al., (1968). Failure of the inhibitor to reassociate with renin upon removal of cadmium ions by EDTA supports their renin control model. It is suggested that either renin samples prepared directly from tissue without the use of acetone powder preparations contain little phospholipase A or cadmium inactivates phospholipase A. In the absence of active phospholipase A, conversion of preinhibitor to inhibitor does not occur and activation of renin develops as existing inhibitor is dissociated and inactivated.

This study was done with twenty C57BL/cJ mice, a high preference strain; and twenty BALB/cJ mice, a very low preference strain. The questions posed were whether a constant intake of twelve percent alcohol would produce cellular damage in the liver, kidney, adrenalin gland, and brain, and if this damage would be to a different extent in the two strains. Four mice in each strain were kept as water fed controls. All mice were fed a standard on a schedule of decreasing intervals over an eleven week period. Microscopic study of the tissues revealed a depletion of cytoplam in the cortex of the adrenal glands. Fat was beginning to gather in the liver cells. There were some binucleate liver cells. In both of these tissues the damage occurred sooner and more extensively in the BALB/6J mice than in the C57BL/cJ mice. The kidneys of the C57BL/cJ mice began to develop adipose tissue, while the BALB/6J mice showed no sign of it. In a general overview the brains showed no obvious signs of damage.

Intermediate iris containing 44 chromosomes have a low rate of fertility. This paper is an attempt to determine the reasons for this low fertility through a study of the chromosomal inhertiance of two intermediate iris that have been successfully hybridized. There are no literary records showing that the results of crossing two chromosome intermediate iris, so most of this paper is a report of lab work.

The "View now" link directs to the finding aid only. Please email wvrhcref@westvirginia.libanswers.com or call 304-293-3536 for more information about accessing collection A&M 1997 Perry D. Strausbaugh (1886-1965) Papers, 1920-1948. Four boxes of correspondence from 1920-1948. The correspondence covers the period from the appointment of Strausbaugh in 1923, as Chairman of the Department of Botany at WVU (later the Department of Biology) to 1948. The correspondence from 1920-1923 is Dr. Strausbaugh's personal correspondence while on the staff of the College of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio. Included are seven pages of typescript carbons containing comments on Elements of Biology by Strausbaugh and Weimer.

The "View now" link directs to the finding aid only. Please email wvrhcref@westvirginia.libanswers.com or call 304-293-3536 for more information about accessing collection A&M 1848 Perry D. Strausbaugh (1886-1965) Papers, 1913-1964. Papers of P. D. Strausbaugh, former head of the Department of Botany, author of a biology textbook, and professor of Botany at WVU. Papers consist mainly of correspondence concerning the writing, compiling, editing, and revising a college biology text in cooperation with B. R. Weimar and Earl L. Core. Also included are letters concerning the investigation of plants for identification, the making of "Wild Flowers of the Alleghenies" and other moving pictures, and the signing of tackle Wilfred A. Jackson for a football scholarship. Correspondence with Earl L. Core includes reference to Core's expedition to South America (with pictures) as a U.S. Government researcher on quinine; reports of WVU developments and construction; and general professional matters. Other correspondent's include scientists, and a few statesmen including: A. B. Brooks, Charles A. Shull, William Crocker, Frank L. Bowman, W. F. Loehwing, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Encyclopedia Americana, Joseph Rosier, Jennings Randolph, M. M. Neely, Chapman Revercomb, H. M. Kilgore, B. S. Myer, and B. R. Weimer, Robert A. Armstrong, C.S. Boucher, W.P. Shortridge, Leonid Enari, A. J. Dadisman, Dudley S. DeGroot, Irvin Stewart, H. P. Sturm, George Smathers, Frank B. Trotter and Phil Conley. There are also manuscripts of articles, a draft of speeches, reports, and essays by Strausbaugh, grade and class books.

The "View now" link directs to the finding aid only. Please email wvrhcref@westvirginia.libanswers.com or call 304-293-3536 for more information about accessing collection A&M 5206 West Virginia University, Department of Biology, Newsletters, 1950-2009. Newsletters of the West Virginia University Department of Biology (1957-1965, scattered issues 1995-2009). Newsletters contain information regarding the activities of Biology Department faculty, staff, students, and alumni; programs and events of the Biology Department; and biology, botany, and science related events and discoveries in the region. Includes issue of newsletter which was drafted but not published (1999). Also contains newsletters of the Phi Epsilson Phi national botany fraternity (1950-1957) and a mailing list for the Southern Applachian Botanical Club (1954).

The "View now" link directs to the finding aid only. Please email wvrhcref@westvirginia.libanswers.com or call 304-293-3536 for more information about accessing collection A&M 0149 Earl A. Brooks Ornithological Notes, 1890-1915. Ornithological notes by Brooks, who was one of four brothers renowned for their studies in biology at WVU around the turn of the century, and after whom Brooks Hall is named. Earl Brooks, WVU Class of 1897, later went to seminary and became a Presbyterian minister before receiving an appointment as professor of Natural Sciences at Boston University. While a student at WVU he began compiling a study of birds of Upshur County. Later this compilation was expanded and published as A Check List of West Virginia Birds, a book that is considered a pioneering classic in the field of ornithology. The collection consists of separate notebooks kept on individual birds that are entitled by the common English name of the bird and also classified in standard scientific fashion according to genus and species. The notebooks are numbered according to the system prescribed by the American Ornithologists Union and each contains a state map with observed sites marked recording field observations by Brooks and his co-workers of nesting sites and habits. These notebooks provided the basis for several publications ca. 1900-16 by Brooks and were later used by Dr. George Hall in a subsequent book on birds of West Virginia.

The "View now" link directs to the finding aid only. Please email wvrhcref@westvirginia.libanswers.com or call 304-293-3536 for more information about accessing collection A&M 2346 Robert C. Spangler (1892-1974) Papers, 1912-1964. Correspondence, research notes, photographs, and other papers of a former Professor of Biology at West Virginia University (1914-1955). Includes some materials relating to Spangler's theory of sex determination and his famous debate in 1922 with William Jennings Bryan regarding the theory of evolution. Bryan had offered a $100.00 prize to any professor who could reconcile evolution with the Bible and Spangler took up the challenge.