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Brown treesnakes are exotic invasive predators that have extirpated native forest birds and caused drastic reductions of lizards on Guam. Operational management control methods to contain the snake on Guam include the use of live traps, hand capture from fences, and canine detection. Live traps are also used to depopulate small forest plots. Toxicants offer an additional means for reducing snake populations on small plots. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic pipe bait stations containing dead neonatal mice (DNM) treated with 80 mg acetaminophen are placed about 1.5 m above the ground in vegetation to reduce exposure to terrestrial scavengers such as toads, crabs, and feral pigs. Live traps or bait stations are not practical to use in remote, large-scale areas of forest but aerial delivery of baits may have application. Small plastic parachutes have been used for entangling DNM in forest canopy but parachutes are relatively expensive and cumbersome to use. Inconveniences can be tolerated when only a small number are deployed. But it is anticipated that several thousand baits may be delivered per drop, and inconveniences must be kept to a minimum to maintain an efficient aerial drop system. We therefore evaluated 5 types of flotation materials dropped by helicopter, using DNM implanted with radio transmitters to record landing site (canopy or ground) and bait consumption by snakes and non-target animals. The types of material and percentage of baits that became entangled in the canopy were: paper ring – 39%, paper drinking cup – 50%, excelsior (wood shavings) and burlap – each 56%, and commercial paper food cup – 60%. For all devices, bait consumption by snakes ranged from 19-50% and bait consumption by non-target toads and crabs ranged from 0 - 11%. Commercial food cups were the most convenient material to use because they could be nested together prior to deployment.

In the late 1800s, the small Indian mongoose was introduced to the Caribbean islands in one of the most widespread purposeful introductions of a mammalian predator in history. Intended as a biological control agent for introduced rats in sugarcane plantations, the mongoose quickly became recognized as a pest due to its predation on poultry and native fauna, and injuries to livestock. Over the last 40 years, the mongoose has also emerged as the primary vector and reservoir for rabies on several Caribbean islands. Due to the estimated costs associated with this introduced carnivore, as well as potential ecological impacts, the mongoose is now listed as one of the top 100 worst invaders by the IUCN. Past large-scale control attempts in the Caribbean have proven unsuccessful, and few to none are currently being implemented. In fact, despite its renown, very little is known about the actual impacts of the mongoose. It is likely that combined with increasing rates of development in some Caribbean islands, the impact of the mongoose on native faunal communities may become more serious. This paper provides an overview of mongoose management in the Caribbean. Although current management priorities center on the role and management of the mongoose as a disease vector, this paper will also discuss opportunities to pair this research with 1) an assessment of the ecological impacts of the mongoose on native species, and 2) the development of mongoose control methods. The Caribbean National Forest, Puerto Rico is used as a case study; however, these methods can potentially apply to other Caribbean islands.

Brown treesnakes are exotic invasive predators that have extirpated native forest birds and caused drastic reductions of lizards on Guam. Operational management control methods to contain the snake on Guam include the use of live traps, hand capture from fences, and canine detection. Live traps are also used to depopulate small forest plots. Toxicants offer an additional means for reducing snake populations on small plots. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic pipe bait stations containing dead neonatal mice (DNM) treated with 80 mg acetaminophen are placed about 1.5 m above the ground in vegetation to reduce exposure to terrestrial scavengers such as toads, crabs, and feral pigs. Live traps or bait stations are not practical to use in remote, large-scale areas of forest but aerial delivery of baits may have application. Small plastic parachutes have been used for entangling DNM in forest canopy but parachutes are relatively expensive and cumbersome to use. Inconveniences can be tolerated when only a small number are deployed. But it is anticipated that several thousand baits may be delivered per drop, and inconveniences must be kept to a minimum to maintain an efficient aerial drop system. We therefore evaluated 5 types of flotation materials dropped by helicopter, using DNM implanted with radio transmitters to record landing site (canopy or ground) and bait consumption by snakes and non-target animals. The types of material and percentage of baits that became entangled in the canopy were: paper ring – 39%, paper drinking cup – 50%, excelsior (wood shavings) and burlap – each 56%, and commercial paper food cup – 60%. For all devices, bait consumption by snakes ranged from 19-50% and bait consumption by non-target toads and crabs ranged from 0 - 11%. Commercial food cups were the most convenient material to use because they could be nested together prior to deployment.

In the late 1800s, the small Indian mongoose was introduced to the Caribbean islands in one of the most widespread purposeful introductions of a mammalian predator in history. Intended as a biological control agent for introduced rats in sugarcane plantations, the mongoose quickly became recognized as a pest due to its predation on poultry and native fauna, and injuries to livestock. Over the last 40 years, the mongoose has also emerged as the primary vector and reservoir for rabies on several Caribbean islands. Due to the estimated costs associated with this introduced carnivore, as well as potential ecological impacts, the mongoose is now listed as one of the top 100 worst invaders by the IUCN. Past large-scale control attempts in the Caribbean have proven unsuccessful, and few to none are currently being implemented. In fact, despite its renown, very little is known about the actual impacts of the mongoose. It is likely that combined with increasing rates of development in some Caribbean islands, the impact of the mongoose on native faunal communities may become more serious. This paper provides an overview of mongoose management in the Caribbean. Although current management priorities center on the role and management of the mongoose as a disease vector, this paper will also discuss opportunities to pair this research with 1) an assessment of the ecological impacts of the mongoose on native species, and 2) the development of mongoose control methods. The Caribbean National Forest, Puerto Rico is used as a case study; however, these methods can potentially apply to other Caribbean islands.

Efforts to mitigate wildlife-human conflicts typically involve management of unacceptably abundant populations. Increasingly, however, reduction of dense or increasing populations of certain wild species evokes both support and contention from the public. Management decisions involving population reduction, particularly those directed at highly visible species, should therefore be based on quantitative evaluation of potential outcomes prior to implementation. The purpose of this paper is to revisit a call for use of population modeling in management decisions by reviewing basic aspects of population analysis and the use of publicly available long-term data sets in environmental assessments and impact statements. Our objectives are to discuss 1) the relationship of population parameters to population growth, 2) methods of population projection, 3) use of data for model calibration and validation, and 4) the evaluation of management scenarios. Justification and defense of lethal or reproductive control programs to solve vertebrate pest problems requires a sound understanding of population status and the dynamics of the problem species.

Zoological parks provide ideal environments for a wide range of vertebrate pests, while at the same time presenting several unique challenges relative to the methods and materials employed for suppressing or eliminating vertebrate pest populations. As a result, zoo park pest management programs must be very carefully designed and implemented. Each of the most significant vertebrate pests requires a species-specific approach within a quality Integrated Pest Management (IPM) framework. Underlying this framework is a necessity for high level cooperation and communication between administrators, veterinarians, individual zookeepers, groundskeepers, pest management personnel and all contracted vendors servicing the park. Because the scope of vertebrate pest management is so broad– especially in the context of a zoo park environment– this paper presents an overview but guides the reader to the appropriate sources of additional pest management information for each particular pest group.

In 1975 and again in 1994, bovine tuberculosis (TB) was diagnosed in a free-ranging white-tailed deer taken by a hunter in the Michigan’s Northeast Lower Peninsula. In subsequent testing of deer, it was clear that deer were not spillover hosts but, in fact, the infection was being sustained in the deer population. While bovine TB had been detected elsewhere in wildlife, this was the first time in North America that bovine tuberculosis was shown to be sustained in wildlife. While TB had no discernible effect on deer populations, it apparently provided a reservoir of infection to cattle. In 1998, TB was detected in cattle herds, which eventually prompted the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Veterinary Services (VS) to reduce Michigan’s TB status. The reduced status places significant burdens on producers selling cattle interstate. While VS has considerable experience and success in eradicating TB from cattle, eradicating TB from wildlife presents a very new scientific and social challenge. This paper outlines the progress of eradication efforts undertaken by Michigan Department of Natural Resources and USDA-APHIS–Wildlife Services (WS). Methods used include reducing deer numbers through hunting, regulating the feeding and baiting of deer, special permit shooting, barriers, and a 2004 pilot project that identifies and removes suspected TB-positive deer.

For birds, hearing is second in importance only to vision for monitoring the world around them. Avian hearing is most sensitive to sounds from about 1 to 4 kHz, although they can hear higher and lower frequencies. No species of bird has shown sensitivity to ultrasonic frequencies (>20 kHz). Sensitivity to frequencies below 20 Hz (infrasound) has not received much attention; however, pigeons and a few other species have shown behavioral and physiological responses to these low frequencies. In general, frequency discrimination in birds is only about one-half or one-third as good it is for humans within the 1 - 4 kHz range. A problem that birds suffer that is similar to humans is damage to the auditory receptors (hair cells) from loud noises. The sound intensity that produces damage and the amount of damage produced differs depending on the species. Birds residing in the active areas of airports might be constantly subjected to sound pressure levels that damage their hearing. Thus, to effectively disperse birds using sound, auditory alerts must be at frequencies that can be detected by the damaged auditory receptors. Although some if not all species of birds have the ability to repair damaged hair cells, continued exposure to loud noises would prevent recovery of their hearing. In this paper I review what is known about avian hearing and compare that to the operational characteristics (frequencies, intensities, duration) of techniques and devices to disperse birds.

This paper discusses several challenges Wildlife Services (WS) personnel encountered while conducting alpha-chloralose (AC) treatments on Canada geese in Reno, Nevada during May and June 2003. While the WS AC training manual provides guidelines for the safe and effective anesthetization of Canada geese using this chemical immobilization tool, we encountered and solved problems and challenges that had not been reported in previous reports on projects using AC. Problems we encountered ranged from being accosted by drunks to interrogations by “elderly ladies” worried that we might be taking their favorite goose. Challenges in collecting immobilized geese resulted from river currents and their effect on AC-treated geese, moss entangling the boat motor propeller on ponds, and automatic sprinklers turning on at inopportune times. It is hoped that addressing these real-world experiences can help others become more proficient in AC field use.

This paper provides historical background on the Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) and describes the functions and capabilities of the Hazing Group within OSPR with regard to protecting wildlife during oil spills. In response to the oil spill disasters of the tankers Exxon Valdez in Alaska and the American Trader in California, legislators in 1990 created OSPR within the California Department of Fish and Game and gave OSPR substantial authority to oversee spill clean-up, natural resource damage assessment activities, and wildlife protection activities. In view of the potential for high bird mortality during a spill event and the high costs for rehabilitation, OSPR established the Hazing Group with the goal of preventing birds from becoming exposed in the event of a spill. The primary responsibilities of the Hazing Group are to: 1) improve and maintain preparedness and hazing response capabilities for spill events, 2) obtain or provide training and training materials on hazing techniques and strategies, spill response procedures, and other related subjects both for wildlife hazing unit members and other appropriate OSPR responders, and 3) conduct and review research on wildlife hazing techniques and strategies appropriate for spill events. With regard to response capabilities, the Hazing Group is on call 24 hr/day, acquired and maintains an inventory of pyrotechnics and other hazing equipment, has a cargo trailer on stand-by loaded with equipment and supplies sufficient for several days, and assembled a collection of California coastline maps useful for response planning. Training required for Hazing Group personnel includes HAZWOPER certification with an annual refresher course. Other training includes an annual Incident Command System class and participation in drills and exercises. A hazing manual is under development as training material for Hazing Group and other OSPR personnel. The Hazing Group conducted a literature review of research on bird hazi

The West Virginia Integrated Predation Management Program was created in 1996 due to increasing livestock losses to coyotes and the inability of producers to solve the problem themselves. The eastern coyote arrived in West Virginia in the early to mid-1980s. By the early 1990s, coyote depredations were recognized as a serious threat to West Virginia’s livestock industries. At a June 26, 1995 public meeting in Riverton, West Virginia, livestock producers expressed to their state delegates and senators their concerns and frustrations with their inability to control coyote predation on sheep. This meeting provided the impetus for the creation of the West Virginia Integrated Predation Management Program as carried out by USDA APHIS Wildlife Services (WS). Wildlife Services predator management specialists in West Virginia integrate and apply or assist the producer in applying a combination of non-lethal and lethal alternatives to minimize coyote predation on sheep, goats, and calves. Wildlife Services has provided predation control workshops, on-site recommendations, and a guard dog cost-share program to encourage producers to implement non-lethal methods on their farms. Lethal control strategies directed at depredating coyotes have been either preventive or corrective. Preventive control has been initiated by WS prior to the onset of actual depredations in areas where historic losses due to coyote depredation have been documented and where there has been an imminent threat of loss of livestock. Corrective control by WS was directed at depredating coyotes in response to ongoing losses with the goal of removing the offending coyotes(s). In this paper, we discuss the development and success of the West Virginia Integrated Predation Management Program to protect livestock.

In 2001, roof rats were identified as major predators of open-cup songbird nests in old growth riparian forests of California’s Central Valley. Nest predation was as high as 80%. For some bird species in recent years, the populations had declined, and their range was reduced. A management strategy to reduce rat impacts on songbirds was considered a priority. Following a review of the literature and consultation with land managers and experts in rodent management and bird conservation, we decided to reduce rat populations with poison baits delivered in bait stations immediately prior to the songbird nesting period. We subsequently conducted studies to provide information on rat home range and habitat use, potential baits, optimal bait station placement and distribution, and the potential non-target hazards of the program. The management strategy was then implemented in one riparian forest tract in October - December 2003. This is an adaptive management approach that will be evaluated in 2004, modified as necessary, and if successful, potentially applied to other riparian forests. In this paper we describe our approach to developing the management strategy, provide preliminary results, and discuss some of the potential problems with its implementation on a large scale.

The increased risk of terrorism with biological agents has been well documented. In response, the United States has established an extensive infrastructure to counteract deliberate disease epidemics that would follow bioterrorism attacks. The plague organism, Yersinia pestis, has been identified as a Category A biological agent by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The response to the use of Y. pestis as a bioweapon, aerosolized and released to a target population, would first involve the treatment and containment of the disease in humans. As the initial impacts of the first round of human infections occur, the possibility exists that the disease could infect commensal rodent populations. If the disease were to progress in rodents, the rodents would suffer mortality and their plague-infected fleas would seek new hosts, potentially including human hosts, and cause a second disease epidemic in humans. This paper outlines the epizoology of the bioweapon use of Y. pestis to commensal rodents, identifies U.S. localities of concern, and suggests control and surveillance strategies in response to a bioterrorism attack of this nature.

Deer foraging on tree seedlings is recognized as the most widespread detriment to reforestation efforts. Non-lethal approaches to reduce deer damage to seedlings are highly desirable. Avoidance of natural secondary metabolites contained in conifers may provide feasible means to develop non-lethal measures. Other studies have demonstrated that sheep and goats fed diets with high protein-to-energy ratios, or allowed to select between concentrates high in either energy or protein, ate much more of a high-terpene diet and of a high-tannin diet than when they were fed diets high in energy-to-protein ratios. Thus, manipulating foraging options for deer may impact their ability to ingest terpenes contained in conifers. We conducted a series of studies to determine whether deer acceptance of terpene-containing foods can be affected by altering the ratio of energy and protein in their maintenance diet. We determined relative consumption of a high-energy and low-protein diet, and a low-energy and high-protein diet, when deer are given the opportunity to self-regulate their intake. We also determined if deer modified their relative intake of these diets when offered an alternative terpene-treated diet. Penned deer were offered variable diets (e.g., high energy-low protein, low-energy-high protein, or both foods), then their acceptance of terpene- and tannin-containing foods was determined. Deer consumed more and demonstrated a strong preference for the high-energy diet relative to the high-protein diet. However, the varied diets did not appear to affect their intake of terpene or tannin-containing foods. This paper discusses the potential of manipulating maintenance rations as a non-lethal tool, presents initial results and possible explanations for differences between our study with deer and prior work with domestic ruminants.

An alternative rodent control technology is presented. The patented discovery that specific plant-derived structural carbohydrate polymers are inhibitory to the water retentive mechanisms of rodents is discussed. Specifically, it has been discovered that when natural complex structural carbohydrates are formulated into a palatable pellet, target species of rodents (rats, mice, and ground squirrels), after ingesting the polymers, become less active and eventually die after 3 - 10 days. Captivity and in situ tests on the Norway rat have indicated the lethal dose for rats to be approximately 35 - 50 g consumed over a period of 72 - 96 hours, whereas for house mice it is 7 - 10 g over the same period. Captive trials on California ground squirrels have indicated a similar lethal dosage to that of rats, specifically 35 - 50 g consumed over 72 - 96 hours. The commercial product is exempt from registration in many countries including the U.S. This paper discusses laboratory and field test results on rodents to date and field use experiences.

Benefit-cost analysis (BCA) has become a highly useful economic tool to evaluate research and operational efforts in wildlife damage management. At the same time, common problems with BCA can be noted in these studies. These problems include: the absence of present value calculations, the misuse of market vs. non-market valuations, and the improper accounting of benefits and costs. Solutions to these problems are relatively simple but are imperative to the accuracy of the results. This paper outlines a number of common errors in BCA and offers solutions that enhance the use of economics in wildlife damage management studies.

The endangered California least tern is a seasonal migrant that nests in colonies on coastal estuaries and beaches of California. A variety of native and non-native predators prey on nesting terns and have the potential to devastate nesting colonies. USDA APHIS Wildlife Services (WS) conducts an annual program to reduce predation and protect nesting terns. Management activities include monitoring and removing known and potential predators with the selective use of various trapping and removal techniques. The most common predators managed at nesting colonies include feral cats, striped skunks, Virginia opossums, California ground squirrels, common ravens, western gulls, American kestrels, and barn owls. However, during the 2003 nesting season, WS documented the loss of 61 least tern nests due to predation by bullsnakes at a colony at North Fiesta Island in Mission Bay, San Diego County. This paper gives an overview of the WS predator management program for the protection of the endangered least tern and describes the nature and management of predation by bullsnakes.

Deer foraging on tree seedlings is recognized as the most widespread detriment to reforestation efforts. Non-lethal approaches to reduce deer damage to seedlings are highly desirable. Avoidance of natural secondary metabolites contained in conifers may provide feasible means to develop non-lethal measures. Other studies have demonstrated that sheep and goats fed diets with high protein-to-energy ratios, or allowed to select between concentrates high in either energy or protein, ate much more of a high-terpene diet and of a high-tannin diet than when they were fed diets high in energy-to-protein ratios. Thus, manipulating foraging options for deer may impact their ability to ingest terpenes contained in conifers. We conducted a series of studies to determine whether deer acceptance of terpene-containing foods can be affected by altering the ratio of energy and protein in their maintenance diet. We determined relative consumption of a high-energy and low-protein diet, and a low-energy and high-protein diet, when deer are given the opportunity to self-regulate their intake. We also determined if deer modified their relative intake of these diets when offered an alternative terpene-treated diet. Penned deer were offered variable diets (e.g., high energy-low protein, low-energy-high protein, or both foods), then their acceptance of terpene- and tannin-containing foods was determined. Deer consumed more and demonstrated a strong preference for the high-energy diet relative to the high-protein diet. However, the varied diets did not appear to affect their intake of terpene or tannin-containing foods. This paper discusses the potential of manipulating maintenance rations as a non-lethal tool, presents initial results and possible explanations for differences between our study with deer and prior work with domestic ruminants.

This paper provides historical background on the Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) and describes the functions and capabilities of the Hazing Group within OSPR with regard to protecting wildlife during oil spills. In response to the oil spill disasters of the tankers Exxon Valdez in Alaska and the American Trader in California, legislators in 1990 created OSPR within the California Department of Fish and Game and gave OSPR substantial authority to oversee spill clean-up, natural resource damage assessment activities, and wildlife protection activities. In view of the potential for high bird mortality during a spill event and the high costs for rehabilitation, OSPR established the Hazing Group with the goal of preventing birds from becoming exposed in the event of a spill. The primary responsibilities of the Hazing Group are to: 1) improve and maintain preparedness and hazing response capabilities for spill events, 2) obtain or provide training and training materials on hazing techniques and strategies, spill response procedures, and other related subjects both for wildlife hazing unit members and other appropriate OSPR responders, and 3) conduct and review research on wildlife hazing techniques and strategies appropriate for spill events. With regard to response capabilities, the Hazing Group is on call 24 hr/day, acquired and maintains an inventory of pyrotechnics and other hazing equipment, has a cargo trailer on stand-by loaded with equipment and supplies sufficient for several days, and assembled a collection of California coastline maps useful for response planning. Training required for Hazing Group personnel includes HAZWOPER certification with an annual refresher course. Other training includes an annual Incident Command System class and participation in drills and exercises. A hazing manual is under development as training material for Hazing Group and other OSPR personnel. The Hazing Group conducted a literature review of research on bird hazi

The endangered California least tern is a seasonal migrant that nests in colonies on coastal estuaries and beaches of California. A variety of native and non-native predators prey on nesting terns and have the potential to devastate nesting colonies. USDA APHIS Wildlife Services (WS) conducts an annual program to reduce predation and protect nesting terns. Management activities include monitoring and removing known and potential predators with the selective use of various trapping and removal techniques. The most common predators managed at nesting colonies include feral cats, striped skunks, Virginia opossums, California ground squirrels, common ravens, western gulls, American kestrels, and barn owls. However, during the 2003 nesting season, WS documented the loss of 61 least tern nests due to predation by bullsnakes at a colony at North Fiesta Island in Mission Bay, San Diego County. This paper gives an overview of the WS predator management program for the protection of the endangered least tern and describes the nature and management of predation by bullsnakes.

The increased risk of terrorism with biological agents has been well documented. In response, the United States has established an extensive infrastructure to counteract deliberate disease epidemics that would follow bioterrorism attacks. The plague organism, Yersinia pestis, has been identified as a Category A biological agent by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The response to the use of Y. pestis as a bioweapon, aerosolized and released to a target population, would first involve the treatment and containment of the disease in humans. As the initial impacts of the first round of human infections occur, the possibility exists that the disease could infect commensal rodent populations. If the disease were to progress in rodents, the rodents would suffer mortality and their plague-infected fleas would seek new hosts, potentially including human hosts, and cause a second disease epidemic in humans. This paper outlines the epizoology of the bioweapon use of Y. pestis to commensal rodents, identifies U.S. localities of concern, and suggests control and surveillance strategies in response to a bioterrorism attack of this nature.

Deer foraging on tree seedlings is recognized as the most widespread detriment to reforestation efforts. Non-lethal approaches to reduce deer damage to seedlings are highly desirable. Avoidance of natural secondary metabolites contained in conifers may provide feasible means to develop non-lethal measures. Other studies have demonstrated that sheep and goats fed diets with high protein-to-energy ratios, or allowed to select between concentrates high in either energy or protein, ate much more of a high-terpene diet and of a high-tannin diet than when they were fed diets high in energy-to-protein ratios. Thus, manipulating foraging options for deer may impact their ability to ingest terpenes contained in conifers. We conducted a series of studies to determine whether deer acceptance of terpene-containing foods can be affected by altering the ratio of energy and protein in their maintenance diet. We determined relative consumption of a high-energy and low-protein diet, and a low-energy and high-protein diet, when deer are given the opportunity to self-regulate their intake. We also determined if deer modified their relative intake of these diets when offered an alternative terpene-treated diet. Penned deer were offered variable diets (e.g., high energy-low protein, low-energy-high protein, or both foods), then their acceptance of terpene- and tannin-containing foods was determined. Deer consumed more and demonstrated a strong preference for the high-energy diet relative to the high-protein diet. However, the varied diets did not appear to affect their intake of terpene or tannin-containing foods. This paper discusses the potential of manipulating maintenance rations as a non-lethal tool, presents initial results and possible explanations for differences between our study with deer and prior work with domestic ruminants.

Efforts to mitigate wildlife-human conflicts typically involve management of unacceptably abundant populations. Increasingly, however, reduction of dense or increasing populations of certain wild species evokes both support and contention from the public. Management decisions involving population reduction, particularly those directed at highly visible species, should therefore be based on quantitative evaluation of potential outcomes prior to implementation. The purpose of this paper is to revisit a call for use of population modeling in management decisions by reviewing basic aspects of population analysis and the use of publicly available long-term data sets in environmental assessments and impact statements. Our objectives are to discuss 1) the relationship of population parameters to population growth, 2) methods of population projection, 3) use of data for model calibration and validation, and 4) the evaluation of management scenarios. Justification and defense of lethal or reproductive control programs to solve vertebrate pest problems requires a sound understanding of population status and the dynamics of the problem species.

In 1975 and again in 1994, bovine tuberculosis (TB) was diagnosed in a free-ranging white-tailed deer taken by a hunter in the Michigan’s Northeast Lower Peninsula. In subsequent testing of deer, it was clear that deer were not spillover hosts but, in fact, the infection was being sustained in the deer population. While bovine TB had been detected elsewhere in wildlife, this was the first time in North America that bovine tuberculosis was shown to be sustained in wildlife. While TB had no discernible effect on deer populations, it apparently provided a reservoir of infection to cattle. In 1998, TB was detected in cattle herds, which eventually prompted the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Veterinary Services (VS) to reduce Michigan’s TB status. The reduced status places significant burdens on producers selling cattle interstate. While VS has considerable experience and success in eradicating TB from cattle, eradicating TB from wildlife presents a very new scientific and social challenge. This paper outlines the progress of eradication efforts undertaken by Michigan Department of Natural Resources and USDA-APHIS–Wildlife Services (WS). Methods used include reducing deer numbers through hunting, regulating the feeding and baiting of deer, special permit shooting, barriers, and a 2004 pilot project that identifies and removes suspected TB-positive deer.

This paper discusses several challenges Wildlife Services (WS) personnel encountered while conducting alpha-chloralose (AC) treatments on Canada geese in Reno, Nevada during May and June 2003. While the WS AC training manual provides guidelines for the safe and effective anesthetization of Canada geese using this chemical immobilization tool, we encountered and solved problems and challenges that had not been reported in previous reports on projects using AC. Problems we encountered ranged from being accosted by drunks to interrogations by “elderly ladies” worried that we might be taking their favorite goose. Challenges in collecting immobilized geese resulted from river currents and their effect on AC-treated geese, moss entangling the boat motor propeller on ponds, and automatic sprinklers turning on at inopportune times. It is hoped that addressing these real-world experiences can help others become more proficient in AC field use.

For birds, hearing is second in importance only to vision for monitoring the world around them. Avian hearing is most sensitive to sounds from about 1 to 4 kHz, although they can hear higher and lower frequencies. No species of bird has shown sensitivity to ultrasonic frequencies (>20 kHz). Sensitivity to frequencies below 20 Hz (infrasound) has not received much attention; however, pigeons and a few other species have shown behavioral and physiological responses to these low frequencies. In general, frequency discrimination in birds is only about one-half or one-third as good it is for humans within the 1 - 4 kHz range. A problem that birds suffer that is similar to humans is damage to the auditory receptors (hair cells) from loud noises. The sound intensity that produces damage and the amount of damage produced differs depending on the species. Birds residing in the active areas of airports might be constantly subjected to sound pressure levels that damage their hearing. Thus, to effectively disperse birds using sound, auditory alerts must be at frequencies that can be detected by the damaged auditory receptors. Although some if not all species of birds have the ability to repair damaged hair cells, continued exposure to loud noises would prevent recovery of their hearing. In this paper I review what is known about avian hearing and compare that to the operational characteristics (frequencies, intensities, duration) of techniques and devices to disperse birds.

In 2001, roof rats were identified as major predators of open-cup songbird nests in old growth riparian forests of California’s Central Valley. Nest predation was as high as 80%. For some bird species in recent years, the populations had declined, and their range was reduced. A management strategy to reduce rat impacts on songbirds was considered a priority. Following a review of the literature and consultation with land managers and experts in rodent management and bird conservation, we decided to reduce rat populations with poison baits delivered in bait stations immediately prior to the songbird nesting period. We subsequently conducted studies to provide information on rat home range and habitat use, potential baits, optimal bait station placement and distribution, and the potential non-target hazards of the program. The management strategy was then implemented in one riparian forest tract in October - December 2003. This is an adaptive management approach that will be evaluated in 2004, modified as necessary, and if successful, potentially applied to other riparian forests. In this paper we describe our approach to developing the management strategy, provide preliminary results, and discuss some of the potential problems with its implementation on a large scale.

The West Virginia Integrated Predation Management Program was created in 1996 due to increasing livestock losses to coyotes and the inability of producers to solve the problem themselves. The eastern coyote arrived in West Virginia in the early to mid-1980s. By the early 1990s, coyote depredations were recognized as a serious threat to West Virginia’s livestock industries. At a June 26, 1995 public meeting in Riverton, West Virginia, livestock producers expressed to their state delegates and senators their concerns and frustrations with their inability to control coyote predation on sheep. This meeting provided the impetus for the creation of the West Virginia Integrated Predation Management Program as carried out by USDA APHIS Wildlife Services (WS). Wildlife Services predator management specialists in West Virginia integrate and apply or assist the producer in applying a combination of non-lethal and lethal alternatives to minimize coyote predation on sheep, goats, and calves. Wildlife Services has provided predation control workshops, on-site recommendations, and a guard dog cost-share program to encourage producers to implement non-lethal methods on their farms. Lethal control strategies directed at depredating coyotes have been either preventive or corrective. Preventive control has been initiated by WS prior to the onset of actual depredations in areas where historic losses due to coyote depredation have been documented and where there has been an imminent threat of loss of livestock. Corrective control by WS was directed at depredating coyotes in response to ongoing losses with the goal of removing the offending coyotes(s). In this paper, we discuss the development and success of the West Virginia Integrated Predation Management Program to protect livestock.

Benefit-cost analysis (BCA) has become a highly useful economic tool to evaluate research and operational efforts in wildlife damage management. At the same time, common problems with BCA can be noted in these studies. These problems include: the absence of present value calculations, the misuse of market vs. non-market valuations, and the improper accounting of benefits and costs. Solutions to these problems are relatively simple but are imperative to the accuracy of the results. This paper outlines a number of common errors in BCA and offers solutions that enhance the use of economics in wildlife damage management studies.

Zoological parks provide ideal environments for a wide range of vertebrate pests, while at the same time presenting several unique challenges relative to the methods and materials employed for suppressing or eliminating vertebrate pest populations. As a result, zoo park pest management programs must be very carefully designed and implemented. Each of the most significant vertebrate pests requires a species-specific approach within a quality Integrated Pest Management (IPM) framework. Underlying this framework is a necessity for high level cooperation and communication between administrators, veterinarians, individual zookeepers, groundskeepers, pest management personnel and all contracted vendors servicing the park. Because the scope of vertebrate pest management is so broad– especially in the context of a zoo park environment– this paper presents an overview but guides the reader to the appropriate sources of additional pest management information for each particular pest group.

An alternative rodent control technology is presented. The patented discovery that specific plant-derived structural carbohydrate polymers are inhibitory to the water retentive mechanisms of rodents is discussed. Specifically, it has been discovered that when natural complex structural carbohydrates are formulated into a palatable pellet, target species of rodents (rats, mice, and ground squirrels), after ingesting the polymers, become less active and eventually die after 3 - 10 days. Captivity and in situ tests on the Norway rat have indicated the lethal dose for rats to be approximately 35 - 50 g consumed over a period of 72 - 96 hours, whereas for house mice it is 7 - 10 g over the same period. Captive trials on California ground squirrels have indicated a similar lethal dosage to that of rats, specifically 35 - 50 g consumed over 72 - 96 hours. The commercial product is exempt from registration in many countries including the U.S. This paper discusses laboratory and field test results on rodents to date and field use experiences.