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Salted duck eggs are a popular food in China and a key ingredient in pastries such as mooncakes, valued for their unique flavors. In this study, we examined the influence of brining processes on duck eggs, focusing on salt concentration and the effect of added wine. Four experimental groups were established: 18% salt, 25% salt, and 18% or 25% salt with added wine. The results from egg yolks suggest that increasing the salt concentration or adding 10% wine (53% alcohol) accelerates the brining process, while the Raman spectra of egg whites remain remarkably stable throughout brining. Our findings suggest that the traditional 30-day brining period can be reduced to 20-25 days with a higher salt concentration or the addition of wine, after which the egg yolk structure becomes largely stable.

Reprogrammable shape morphing is ubiquitous in living beings and highly crucial for them to move in normal situations, even to survive under dangerous conditions. There is increasing interest in using asymmetric hydrogel structures to understand and mimic living beings' shape morphing upon an external trigger in a controlled way. However, these asymmetric or heterogeneous configurations cannot be further modified once the polymer hydrogels are prepared. Therefore, it is a great challenge to achieve reprogrammable shape morphing using the existing hydrogels. Inspired by marine amoebae, which transform into several different morphologies according to the various external salt concentrations, a new strategy is developed for salting hydrogels to reconfigure their anisotropy toward reprogrammable shape morphing. Polyampholyte hydrogels with equal stoichiometric COO - and N + (CH 3 ) 3 groups were first swollen in HCl/NaCl solution. After being then transferred into water, they first swollen again by water uptake driven by the osmotic pressure, and then were spontaneously deswollen due to increase in internal pH and dialysis of ions leading to deprotonation of COOH to COO - and regeneration of COO - /N + (CH 3 ) 3 electrostatic attraction. This work provides a novel strategy to reconfigure anisotropy of hydrogel soft actuators and to open up an avenue for reprogrammable shape morphing., (© 2024 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Chopping and salting are two important processing steps in emulsified meat products. Effects of chopping and salting on metabolic process, protein functionality, and ultrastructure of pre-rigor silver carp muscle, and how these three aspects changed during rigor transformation were explored. Chopping caused an accelerated loss of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from 1.16 μmol/g to 0.16 μmol/g, and salt addition inhibited accumulation of hypoxanthine nucleoside (HxR) and hypoxanthine (Hx). Similarly, chopping led to faster decrease of glycogen from 4.59 mg/g to 1.50 mg/g and increase in lactic acid from 0.52 mmol/g protein to 0.82 mmol/g protein, and salt exerted an inhibition effect. In agreement with ATP and glycogen breakdown, metabolic profiling revealed that chopping and salting altered the metabolism in fatty acids and amino acids during rigor transformation. After rigor transformation, chopping with salt led to significant reduction in radical scavenging ability, accompanied by greater loss of sulfhydryl groups. Salt also promoted protein denaturation, evidenced by increased surface hydrophobicity and decreased intrinsic fluorescence. The ultrastructure of fish muscle after chopping or chopping with salt was similar between pre- and post-rigor stages. The abovementioned findings can provide valuable insight into the production of fish products., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Consumption of raw and undercooked meat is considered as an important source of Toxoplasma gondii infections. However, most non-heated meat products contain salt and additives, which affect T. gondii viability. It was our aim to develop an in vitro method to substitute the mouse bioassay for determining the effect of salting on T. gondii viability. Two sheep were experimentally infected by oral inoculation with 6.5 × 10 4 oocysts. Grinded meat samples of 50 g were prepared from heart, diaphragm, and four meat cuts. Also, pooled meat samples were either kept untreated (positive control), frozen (negative control) or supplemented with 0.6 %, 0.9 %, 1.2 % or 2.7 % NaCl. All samples were digested in pepsin-HCl solution, and digests were inoculated in duplicate onto monolayers of RK13 (a rabbit kidney cell line). Cells were maintained for up to four weeks and parasite growth was monitored by assessing Cq-values using the T. gondii qPCR on cell culture supernatant in intervals of one week and ΔCq-values determined. Additionally, 500 μL of each digest from the individual meat cuts, heart and diaphragm were inoculated in duplicate in IFNγ KO mice. Both sheep developed an antibody response and tissue samples contained similar concentrations of T. gondii DNA. From all untreated meat samples positive ΔCq-values were obtained in the in vitro assay, indicating presence and multiplication of viable parasites. This was in line with the mouse bioassay, with the exception of a negative mouse bioassay on one heart sample. Samples supplemented with 0.6 %-1.2 % NaCl showed positive ΔCq-values over time. The frozen sample and the sample supplemented with 2.7 % NaCl remained qPCR positive but with high Cq-values, which indicated no growth. In conclusion, the in vitro method has successfully been used to detect viable T. gondii in tissues of experimentally infected sheep, and a clear difference in T. gondii viability was observed between the samples supplemented with 2.7 % NaCl and those with 1.2 % NaCl or less., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest There are no interests to declare for the manuscript “In vitro assay to determine inactivation of Toxoplasma gondii in meat samples.”, (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Salting pretreatment is an effective method to improve the quality of frozen fish. This study investigated the quality changes and proteomic profile differences of frozen yellowfin tuna fillets pretreated with ultrasound-assisted salting (UAS) and static salting (SS). This study was centered on three aspects: physicochemical indicators' determination, histological observation, and proteomic analysis. The results showed that UAS significantly increased yield, salt content, and water-holding capacity (WHC), decreased total volatile base nitrogen (TVBN) compared to SS ( p < 0.05), and significantly increased water in the protein matrix within myofibrils. Histological observations showed that the tissue cells in the UAS group were less affected by frozen damage, with a more swollen structure and rougher surface of myofibrils observed. Furthermore, 4D label-free proteomics revealed 56 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) in UAS vs. NT comparison, mainly structural proteins, metabolic enzymes, proteasomes, and their subunits, which are associated with metabolic pathways such as calcium signaling pathway, gap junction, actin cytoskeletal regulation, and necroptosis, which are intimately associated with quality changes in freeze-stored tuna fillets. In brief, UAS enhances the potential for the application of salting pretreatment to improve frozen meat quality, and 4D label-free proteomics provides knowledge to reveal the potential links between quality and molecular changes in processed frozen meat to optimize future UAS meat processing.

In conventional ultrasonic techniques, the necessary contact between the sensor and the product has constrained the implementation of ultrasound for quality control purposes in the meat industry. The use of novel air-coupled ultrasonic technologies provides multiple advantages linked to contactless inspection. Therefore, this study aims to compare the feasibility of contact (C; 1 MHz) and non-contact (NC; 0.3 MHz) ultrasonic techniques for monitoring the physicochemical modifications undergone by beef steaks during dry salting after different times (0, 1, 4, 8 and 24 hours). Experimental results showed that the ultrasonic velocity increased during salting, which was linked to the reduction in Time-of-Flight ratio (R TOF ) and sample shrinkage (velocity C: R 2  = 0.99; velocity NC: R 2  = 0.93 and R TOF C: R 2  = 0.98; R TOF NC: R 2  = 0.95). In terms of the compositional changes provoked by salting, the velocity variation (△V) increased linearly (C: R 2  = 0.97; NC: R 2  = 0.95) with the salt content. As for textural parameters, hardness (C: R 2  = 0.99; NC: R 2  = 0.97) and relaxation capacity (C: R 2  = 0.96; NC: R 2  = 0.94) were well correlated with the △V through power equations. Experimental results reflected that the performance of the non-contact ultrasonic technique was similar to that of the contact technique as regards the monitoring of the physicochemical changes undergone by beef steaks during dry salting., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The salting process for meat transformation is a crucial step in conventional industry. Recent developments in label-free spectrometry techniques combined with machine learning hold great promise for high-precision salt processing. In this study, we applied UV fluorescence to characterize salting treatments in pig's Teres major muscle and predict NaCl concentrations. t-SNE analyses based on spectral measurements revealed clear differences between NaCl-free and salted treatments. However, salt treatments were not clearly identified. We then highlighted and exploited a variability seen in the emission spectra at the wavelengths 300, 318, and 360 nm, which reflected structural or compositional changes. Using this information, predictive models could accurately identify the five salted treatments with a high specificity and sensitivity or predict salt concentrations. This study paves the way toward the possibility for industrials to precisely adjust NaCl concentrations with precision during processing., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Ras cheese is the main Egyptian hard cheese that is well-known worldwide. Herein, we investigated how different salting techniques affect the physio-chemical properties, sensory properties, and volatile compounds of Ras cheese over a six-month ripening period. Five Ras cheese treatments were made from pasteurized cow's milk using various salting techniques: traditional salting of Ras cheese, salting by applying all of the salt to the curd after the entire whey drainage, salting by applying all of the salt to the curd after half to two-thirds of the whey drainage, salting in a brine solution for 24 h without dry salting, and salting in a brine solution for 12 h and then dry salting. The obtained results by GC-MS recorded that thirty-eight volatile compounds were identified in Ras cheese treatments after six months of ripening, and the development of volatile compounds was affected by the salting technique as well as the ripening period of the cheeses, which played a major role in the type and concentration of volatile compounds. Results revealed that there are six esters, 15 fatty acids, five ketones, two aldehydes, four alcohols, and eight other compounds identified in most treatments. Some physio-chemical characteristics and sensory properties were found to have high correlations with the storage period, while some others have low correlations during the ripening period.

The effects and mechanisms of salting on quality properties of tilapia fillets were investigated in the present study. Salting under high NaCl concentrations (12 % and 15 %) resulted in low water content and decreased yields, due to the salting-out effects and low pH. Water in fillets increased in the later stage of salting in 3 % and 6 % NaCl solutions ( p  < 0.05). The released proteins accumulated with increasing time ( p  < 0.05). The TBARS value increased from 0.01 to 0.20 mg/kg after 10 h in 15 % NaCl solution ( p  < 0.05). The quality changes were mainly correlated to the shrinking or swelling of myofibers, extracellular spaces, and existential state of muscle proteins. In consideration of fish quality and increasing call for low sodium intake, it was recommended to prepare fillets below 9 % NaCl with short times. The finding provided instructions to obtain target quality properties from tilapia by controlling salting conditions., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2023 The Authors.)

Introduction: The production of the large yellow croaker has seasonal and regional characteristics, which is typically preserved on ice, possibly leading to its deterioration in a short time. Therefore, in this study, we focused on the effect of temperature fluctuation on the quality changes of the large yellow croaker during frozen storage., Methods: In this experiment, the large yellow croaker was soaked in a low-salt solution, and physical and chemical properties, water-holding capacity, color, and protein characteristics of the muscle were investigated after repeated freeze-thaw (F-T) cycles and frozen storage., Results and Discussion: The results show the deterioration of muscle quality of large yellow croaker after low-salt treatment was lower than that of the salt-free soaking group. The salting treatment significantly ( P < 0.05) enhanced the yield of large yellow croaker, which was 24.3% greater than the salt-free soaking group after 6 weeks of frozen storage. The microstructure of the salted muscle was more stable and maintained its cellular structure after F-T cycles and frozen storage. The b* value of the salt-free soaking group increased from b* value of the low-salt soaking group decreased from acceptable range. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) analysis indicates the content of 17 kDa peptide decreased in the low-salt soaking group, and the peptides at 21 and 24 kDa increased during frozen storage. The results of the present study provide guidance for the optimal processing, transport, and storage of large yellow croaker, but the effect of salting on lipid oxidation and protein oxidation requires further study., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Bao, Zhang, Li, Chen, Mao, Yang, Gao and Deng.)

Salting is a technique used for preserving fish meat and allows obtaining added value products. The salting process provokes several structure modifications, which in turns cause changes in the fish texture. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of three salting procedures (dry salting [DS], mixed salting [MS] and brining [BS]) on the rheology and structure of Merluccius hubbsi (Argentine hake). Rheological properties were evaluated using dynamic oscillatory and thermorheology tests, and the structure changes by scanning electron microscopy. DS samples showed the highest values of salt concentration referred to liquid phase (z NaCl ), while BS showed the lowest ones. In all cases, elastic (G') and loss (G″) modulus increased with salting time. G' values exceeded G″ values, indicating a predominant solid behavior. DS samples presented the greatest increase in rheological parameters (G', G″ and η*). Thermomechanical spectra allowed to identify an increase in denaturation temperature (Td) of proteins (myosin and actin) for DS and MS, and to a lesser extent for BS (Td = 46.7 ± 0.4°C, Td = 50.3 ± 0.8°C, Td = 58.8 ± 0.6°C and Td = 58.2 ± 0.9°C for fresh, BS, MS and DS, respectively). Ultrastructural images evidenced conformational changes on the myofibrillar proteins and the connective tissue (collagen). BS caused the least superficial damage to hake tissue. Based on the results, BS could be the method recommended for the industrial production of salted M. hubbsi. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: During salting of hake, variations in water and salt content have a significant effect on the myofibrillar and connective tissue proteins. The study of rheological properties and microstructure allows a better understanding of the conformational changes induced by the salting process. The least surface damage exhibited by brining fillets is consistent with the mass transfer mechanism that leads to the formation of a film on the muscle surface that dilutes the salt; for this reason, compared to dry and mixed salting, brining could be the method recommended for the industrial production of salted (>15% w/w) Merluccius hubbsi., (© 2022 Institute of Food Technologists®.)

Currently, herring fillets are salted with acetic acid to activate muscle proteases. This causes a change in the composition of free amino acids, compared to salting of whole fish with viscera proteases. Therefore, old indicators of the ripening dynamics of salted fish based on amino acids are not current. Determination of free amino acids can be performed by many methods, but most are labor intensive and expensive. Therefore, a capillary electrophoresis method without derivatization (CZE) was used to determine the actual ripening rates of salted herring fillets. A group of hydrophobic and basic amino acids were determined in trichloroacetic acid (TCA) extracts of meat and brine to develop 16 indicators. Statistical regression analysis of the indicators (R2adj, RMSE, cluster analysis) followed by principal component analysis (PCA) correlation analysis of the indicators vs sensory evaluation parameters of texture and TPA-hardness of salted fillet meat allowed the choice of the most precise indicators. The best indicator in meat was Phe/Tyr-height, which value increased during salting. A more precise indicator of ripening was His/Tyr-height in brine, which value decreased during salting. Sensory evaluation parameters of salted herring texture correlated strongly with TPA-hardness and traditional indicators such as non-protein nitrogen and protein hydrolysis product fraction content. However, the most precise indicators were those obtained from amino acids determined by the CZE method. Results obtained in this study may be suitable for fast monitoring of the salted herring ripening process in industry.

The influence of salting procedures on the proximate analysis, mechanical parameters, and color of hake ( Merluccius hubbsi ) was investigated. Three procedures were comparatively evaluated: dry salting (DS), mixed salting (MS) and brining (BS). MS samples had the highest fat content, a considerable protein content and an equilibrium salt content similar to BS. MS samples had a great water loss, as DS method, but hardness and other mechanical parameters were similar to that obtained with BS, i.e. significantly lower than DS. All samples showed color parameters significantly different as compared to fresh hake, turning more red-orange as the salting time increased. Lightness diminished, a∗ values increased and b∗ values did not show a clear trend throughout the salting time. Principal component analysis (PCA) described the relationship between some variables (z NaCl , color, and mechanical parameters) with salting time. High Pearson's correlation coefficients were found between z NaCl and hardness, springiness, cohesiveness and a∗ parameter (r = 0.76, p < 0.001; r = 0.93, p < 0.0001; r = 0.95, p < 0.001 and r = 0.93, p < 0.0001, respectively). Luminosity was negatively correlated with z NaCl (r = -0.87, p = 0.0001). The correlation curves showed nonlinear relationships (R 2 between 83.7 % and 97.4 %), which could be used to predict quality attributes of hake fillets as a function of salting time. This work contributed to know the effect of different salting procedures on the quality attributes of a species widely available in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean.adj between 83.7 % and 97.4 %), which could be used to predict quality attributes of hake fillets as a function of salting time. This work contributed to know the effect of different salting procedures on the quality attributes of a species widely available in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2021 The Authors.)

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different vacuum impregnation (VI) conditions (Control, VI-250, VI-500, VI-750, US-VI-250, US-VI-500 and US-VI-750) on the salt gain (SG) and water gain (WG) kinetics of beef cubes. The cubes were immersed in brine solution (4 g NaCl/ 100 g solution) and salted at different levels of vacuum (250, 500 and 750 mbar) using VI method with and without ultrasound. The final moisture and salt contents of the cubes were 78.60% and 1.59%, respectively, and the samples were salted the fastest with US-VI-250. Five kinetic models were selected to evaluate the SG and WG kinetics, and Azuara model exhibited the best fit. In addition, the salt (D s ) and moisture (D w ) diffusion coefficients were in the range of 5.94-8.11 × 10 -9  m 2 /s and 5.17-8.64 × 10 -9  m 2 /s, respectively. It can be concluded that the ultrasound-assisted VI could shorten the brining time by improving the salt diffusion in beef cubes., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this study was to quantify the effects of different processing parameters on texture development and the incidence of white film and tyrosine crystals in dry-cured ham. Hams were dry-salted for 0.65, 0.8 or 1.0 days/kg. After drying for 45 days at 5 °C, they were dried at 10, 15 or 20 °C until reaching 33% weight loss and, thereafter, dried at 25 °C until reaching 36 or 40% weight loss. The salting time, drying temperature and target weight loss significantly affected the texture and incidence of white film and tyrosine crystals. A beneficial effect of drying at 20 °C on texture was found, which was especially important for low target weight loss (33%). Besides, hams dried at 20 °C and those with 40% weight loss showed higher incidence of tyrosine crystals. Contour plots and predictive models for texture can be used to define optimal processing parameters., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Consumption of meat containing viable tissue cysts is considered one of the main sources of human infection with Toxoplasma gondii. In contrast to fresh meat, raw meat products usually undergo processing, including salting and mixing with other additives such as sodium acetate and sodium lactate, which affects the viability of T. gondii. However, the experiments described in the literature are not always performed in line with the current processing methods applied in industry. It was our goal to study the effect of salting and additives according to the recipes used by industrial producers. Mouse or cat bioassay is the 'gold standard' to demonstrate the presence of viable T. gondii. However, it is costly, time consuming and for ethical reasons not preferred for large-scale studies.Therefore, we first aimed to develop an alternative for mouse bioassay that can be used to determine the effect of processing on the viability of T. gondii tissue cysts. The assays studied were (i) a cell culture method to determine the parasite's ability to multiply, and (ii) a propidium monoazide (PMA) dye-based assay to selectively detect DNA from intact parasites. Processing experiments were performed with minced meat incubated for 20 h with low concentrations of NaCl, sodium lactate and sodium acetate. NaCl appeared to be the most effective ingredient with only one or two out of eight mice infected after inoculation with pepsin-digest of portions processed with 1.0, 1.2 and 1.6% NaCl. Results of preliminary experiments with the PMA-based method were inconsistent and did not sufficiently discriminate between live and dead parasites. In contrast, the cell culture method showed promising results, but further optimization is needed before it can replace or reduce the number of mouse bioassays needed. In future, standardised in vitro methods are necessary to allow more extensive testing of product-specific processing methods, thereby providing a better indication of the risk of T. gondii infection for consumers., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Salting process is widely used in the process of meat products, whereas few studies have revealed the digestibility of actomyosin after salting treatment, which is closely related with the nutrition of meat. This work reported effect of salting on the structural change and digestibility of actomyosin before and after heat treatment. Actomyosin in 0.4 M and 0.8 M of NaCl had higher content of disulfide bonds, and actomyosin in 0.4 M NaCl showed the largest particle sizes before and after heat treatment. In addition, actomyosin in 0.6 M and 0.8 M of NaCl was oxidized more severely after heat treatment. Based on peptidomics analysis by using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), actomyosin in 0.6 M was digested more easily, which was followed by sample in 0.8 M and 0.4 M of NaCl in descending order. The lowest digestibility of actomyosin in 0.4 M NaCl was related with its higher content of disulfide bond and severer aggregation behavior. The lower digestibility of actomyosin in 0.8 M NaCl should be related with the higher content of disulfide bonds and surface oxidation. These results highlight the crucial role of salting process in affecting the digestibility of meat protein., (© Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2019.)

Biltong is an Ready to Eat (RTE) shelf stable salted/dried meat product stored under ambient conditions. The effect of vinegar addition during salting, weight loss during drying and packaging (modified atmosphere and vacuum) on the physicochemical and microbiological properties of beef biltong over a 3 months storage at 25 °C was investigated. Biltong dried to ~50% weight loss had a moisture content of ~50 g/100 g, salt content of 7.49 g/100 g and water activity >0.81 whilst biltong dried to 65% weight loss had a moisture content of 30 g/100 g, salt content of 7.14 g/100 g and water activity <0.78. Packaging method had no effect. Vinegar decreased the pH of biltong to 4.91, delayed the growth of total viable counts and reduced the coliforms count but not the yeasts and moulds. Escherichia coli was below the detection limit of 1 log cfu/g, Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes were absent and Staphylococcus aureus counts were <1.3 log cfu/g., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Implementation of three-dimensional (3D) food printing and novel analytics can reduce food waste and increase utilization of seafood by-products. Low field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) and chemometrics were used to investigate the printability and characteristics of surimi pastes from cod by-products as affected by different processing methods (the pH-shift method vs. conventional washing), addition of salt (0, 1.5, and 3%), length of cold storage (0, 4, and 7 days) until 3D printing, and steam cooking. The analysis revealed two to three water populations in the 3D printed samples. Increasing the salt concentration induced myofibrillar swelling in the conventionally prepared surimi, whereas a more salt-induced gelling effect was observed in the pH-shift processed surimi. Cooking had a decreasing effect on the T 21 relaxation time and its corresponding apparent population (A 21 ), corresponding to protein denaturation and water loss during cooking. Increasing the salt concentration to 3% had a protective effect towards water exchange between the A 21 and A 23 populations in the conventionally washed samples but more subtly in the pH-shift samples. Similar trends in relaxation parameters were observed after 4 and 7 days of storage, although the intermediate population A 22 seemed to be most affected by the storage. Overall LF-NMR was an effective quality monitoring tool for the physicochemical changes occurring in the 3D printed surimi. The analysis showed both advantages and disadvantages of the two processing methods. However, it can clearly be concluded that increasing the salt content had a stabilizing effect on the surimi, and printing of fresh raw materials is recommended., (© 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

The impact of different proteases (alcalase, ficin, protamex, and neutrase) on the hydrolyzation, foaming and radical scavenging potency of salted duck egg white was studied. Egg white without protease hydrolyzation served as control. Regarding the degree of hydrolysis, neutrase and protamex were more capable of hydrolyzing duck egg white than the others. The α-amino nitrogen content in the egg whites was highly correlated with hydrolysis ability of the enzymes, and it had gradually increased with curing. Foam stability, capacity and emulsion stability were significantly influenced by proteases and curing period. However, the solubility of the egg white hydrolysate was not much affected by curing but showed significant differences between hydrolyzed and control samples. Emulsion stability of hydrolysate decreased with curing times. Neutrase and alcalase hydrolysates gave the best foaming and emulsion properties. Moreover, neutrase and protamex hydrolysates showed good scavenging potency against the DPPH radicals, hydroxyl radicals, hydrogen peroxide, and ferrous ion radicals. Overall, the hydrolysate from neutrase hydrolyzed duck egg white showed the highest foaming and radical scavenging capacities among the other hydrolysis treatments in this study.

El Gueddid is a traditional salted and dried meat with high popularity in Algeria. It is used as an ingredient in various dishes. In this study, different samples of El Gueddid were analyzed at different processing times to follow up their microbiological and physicochemical properties. Changes in the protein profile were also demonstrated by electrophoretic study of myofibrillar proteins. Microbiological determinations included the total viable count, coliforms, Staphylococci, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, and molds, whereas physicochemical properties were characterized by pH, moisture, salt content and water activity. The results showed that microbial profiles were elevated for all the studied micro-organisms. Staphylococci and lactic acid bacteria were the most abundant micro-organisms in the product. Total coliforms were found in low numbers in fresh meat, being eliminated at the post salting stage of process. The physicochemical characteristics showed that the moisture content decreased in the product during the drying period. The pH also decreased during the drying period, then remained almost unchanged during the rest of the ripening period. Moreover, El Gueddid showed low water activity and high salt content. One of the most important changes in the profile of myofibrillar proteins was a reduction in the myosin heavy chain content.

The influence of the pulsed-vacuum impregnation (PVI) and periodic pulsed-vacuum impregnation (PPVI), and the temperature, on the salting process of pirarucu fillet was studied. For this, the dorsal region of the fish in the slab-shaped (60 mm × 20 mm × 5 mm) and sodium chloride solution (30 g/100 g NaCl) were used. The process was conducted at different temperatures (10 °C - 40 °C) and the following pulsed-vacuum conditions: initial vacuum pulse (5 min at 10 kPa) and alternating periods of vacuum pulse (5 min at 10 kPa) and atmospheric pressure (101 kPa) for 5 min, 10 min and 15 min intermittently. The solid gain (SG) in the fillet was more pronounced in the first two hours of the salting process. The increase of salt content in the product (0.33 ± 0.02 to 0.43 ± 0.04 g/g db) promoted the gradual reduction of moisture (72.99 ± 1.27 to 57.1 ± 2.4 g/100 g) and water activity (1.00 ± 0.03 to 0.78 ± 0.05). PVI and PPVI processes can be used efficiently at room temperature or under refrigeration in the salting process of pirarucu fillet. On the other hand, at higher temperatures (>30 °C), the effect of temperature prevails over the effect of vacuum. Peleg model satisfactorily explains the salting kinetics of the pirarucu fillet., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The effects of salting and subsequent freezing on the physicochemical and histological properties of frozen-thawed tuna meat were investigated. Salting facilitated the microstructural recovery as indicated by the decrease or disappearance of intracellular holes. The yield of the 0.5 M and 1 M salted samples increased by 20% which was evaluated by the mass ratio of products to raw material. Morphological transformation from ice columns to spherical or ellipsoidal ice crystals was tentatively attributed to the extraction/solubilization of myofibrillar proteins, contributing to increased water-holding capacity. However, increased thawing loss and centrifuging loss after thawing were observed in the 2 M and 3 M salted samples with large ice crystals and enlarged extracellular spaces. These modifications were closely associated with the changes in protein properties. In conclusion, enhanced water-holding capacity, high yield, and good freezing stability can be achieved by optimal salting., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The article for the first time studies the kinetics of the activated brines diffusion inside meat based on the research of microstructure and nuclear magnetic resonance relaxation. The effect of ultrasound on the increase of hydration properties of pork proteins was found positive. The results of the experiments prove that spray penetration into not only interfibrillar spaces like during jetting but also inside muscle fibers leads to essential changes in meat structure, redistribution of brine components and acceleration of biochemical processes., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Introduction: George Salting was an art collector, who bequeathed his collection of paintings to the National Gallery of London. The present investigation has revealed five portraits of five different artists belonging to this collection in which the Holy Mother holding the child has been portrayed with a variable grade of thyroid gland enlargement. The name Salting, applied to the Madonnas with child by Antonello da Messina, Robert Campin, Dirk Bouts, Cima da Conegliano, and Andrea del Verrocchio, denotes George Salting, the collector who donated the masterworks to the gallery in 1910., Materials and Methods: The five paintings were analyzed to determine the accuracy of the diagnosis of neck swelling and the underlying iconographical significance of this depiction, which is relatively uncommon in religious artworks., Results: The present investigation highlighted an abnormal profile of the neck of the Virgin Mary, which is suggestive of a presumptive medico-artistic diagnosis of goiter. The inclusion of thyroid swelling in a holy sitter is relatively uncommon and is related to specific meanings that the painter wanted to illustrate in the work, the reasons for which are herein discussed., Conclusions: It seems likely that the integration of the goiter in the paintings is a stylistic hallmark. Indeed, the depiction of a slight neck enlargement is most probably a rhetorical tendency of representing an idealized female beauty, especially in holy sitters, imbued by a balanced neck and graceful body. At the same time, it probably also reflects better anatomic accuracy and knowledge of Renaissance artists applied toward a more realistic and precise representation of subjects., Competing Interests: There are no conflicts of interest.

Chemical compositions, trypsin inhibitory activity, and gelling properties of albumen from duck egg during salting of 30 days were studied. As the salting time increased, moisture content decreased, the salt content and surface hydrophobicity increased ( p <0.05). Trypsin inhibitory activity and specific activity were continuously decreased throughout the salting time of 30 days ( p <0.05). This coincided with the decrease in band intensity of inhibitor with molecular weight of 44 kDa as examined by inhibitory activity staining. Nevertheless, no differences in protein patterns were observed in albumen during the salting of 30 days. Based on texture profile analysis, hardness, springiness, gumminess, chewiness, and resilience of albumen gel decreased with increasing salting time. Conversely, salted albumen gels exhibited higher cohesiveness and adhesiveness, compared to those of fresh albumen. Scanning electron microscopic study revealed that gel of salted albumen showed the larger voids and less compactness. In general, salting lowered trypsin inhibitory activity and gelling property of albumen from duck egg to some extent. Nevertheless, the salted albumen with the remaining inhibitor could be an alternative additive for surimi or other meat products to prevent proteolysis.

Phosphorylated proteins in ovine muscle induced by salt curing were well investigated. Ten topside muscles of crossbred sheep were ground, mixed and divided into two groups, which were cured for 16h with 0% and 3% NaCl, respectively. Muscle proteins of two cured groups were analyzed by two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled with Pro-Q Diamond and SYPRO Ruby staining. The differential phosphorylated proteins were determined using LC-MS/MS and the UniProt database. Ten different phosphoproteins (>1.5 fold) induced by salting were identified, including triosephosphate isomerase, glycogen phosphorylase, creatine kinase M-type, myoglobin, troponin T fast skeletal muscle type, actin, myosin light chain 1/3, tropomyosin beta chain, etc. Most of the different phosphoproteins were involved in glycometabolism, protein function and protein degradation. It is conclusively that salting may influence meat quality through protein phosphorylation, which regulates glycolysis metabolism, protein function and degradation., (Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Digenetic trematodes of the genus Clinostomum are widely distributed in many species of freshwater fish and are known to cause the zoonotic disease Halzoun. Humans may become accidental hosts if they ingest raw freshwater fish containing metacercaria of Clinostomum complanatum, which causes pharyngitis or laryngitis. The yellow grub parasitizing cultivated ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis) and loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus) was one of the most serious problems in fish farms from 1977 to 1979 in Taiwan. The present study revealed, for the first time, frequent occurrence of C. complanatum metacercaria in various fish species in a natural environment, the Dahan River, in Taiwan. We examined 1503 fish specimens belonging to four families and 162 snails representing six species. C. complanatum metacercaria was mainly from the fish family Cyprinidae, and only cercaria from the snail Radix swinhoei was recovered. The prevalence and mean intensity of metacercaria were 9.8% and 9.35 parasites/infected fish, respectively. The prevalence of cercaria was low, 0.62%, in snails. Acrossocheilus paradoxus, Zacco barbata, Zacco pachycephalus, Zacco platypus, Onychostoma barbatula, and Hemibarbus labeo are new host records. Metacercariae were primarily found in the operculum, mandible, muscle, and oral cavity of fish. Morphological description and molecular analysis with 18S rDNA sequencing allowed for rapidly identifying C. complanatum. Encysted and excysted metacercariae cultivated at 22 °C in physiological saline died within 60 h. The mean intensity of infection increased with an increasing length of Z. pachycephalus. We found no association between monthly parasite prevalence and mean intensity at each sampling location. No C. complanatum metacercaria survived after 8 h of salting. The Dahan River has suitable conditions and hosts (snails, fish, and fish-eating birds) for maintaining the life cycle of C. complanatum.

The feasibility of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) (400-1000nm) for tracing the chemical spoilage extent of the raw meat used for two kinds of processed meats was investigated. Calibration models established separately for salted and cooked meats using full wavebands showed good results with the determination coefficient in prediction (R 2 P ) of 0.887 and 0.832, respectively. For simplifying the calibration models, two variable selection methods were used and compared. The results showed that genetic algorithm-partial least squares (GA-PLS) with as much continuous wavebands selected as possible always had better performance. The potential of HSI to develop one multispectral system for simultaneously tracing the chemical spoilage extent of the two kinds of processed meats was also studied. Good result with an R 2 P of 0.854 was obtained using GA-PLS as the dimension reduction method, which was thus used to visualize total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N) contents corresponding to each pixel of the image., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Previous studies have reported improvements in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors with the consumption of raw nuts. However, around one-third of nuts consumed are roasted and salted. Thus, it is important to determine whether roasting and salting nuts affect the health benefits observed with raw nuts. This study aimed to compare the effects of consuming two different forms of hazelnuts on cardiovascular risk factors and acceptance., Methods: Using a randomised crossover design, 72 participants were asked to consume 30 g/day of either raw or dry roasted, lightly salted hazelnuts for 28 days each. CVD risk factors were measured at the beginning and end of each treatment period. "Desire to consume" and "overall liking" for both forms of hazelnuts were assessed daily using a 150-mm visual analogue scale., Results: Body composition, blood pressure, plasma total and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, apolipoprotein A1 and B100, glucose and α-tocopherol concentrations did not differ between forms of hazelnuts (all P ≥ 0.054). High-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol (P = 0.037) and triacylglycerol (P < 0.001) concentrations were significantly lower following the consumption of dry roasted, lightly salted hazelnuts when compared to the raw hazelnuts. Compared with baseline, consuming both forms of hazelnuts significantly improved HDL-cholesterol and apolipoprotein A1 concentrations, total-C/HDL-C ratio, and systolic blood pressure without significantly changing body composition. Acceptance ratings did not differ between forms of hazelnuts and remained high throughout the study., Conclusion: Dry roasting and lightly salting nuts do not appear to negate the cardioprotective effects observed with raw nut consumption, and both forms of nuts are resistant to monotony. Public health messages could be extended to include dry roasted and lightly salted nuts as part of a heart healthy diet.

A study of the various chemical reactions which take place during fish in vitro digestion and the potential effect of fish salting on their extent is addressed for the first time. Farmed European sea bass fillets, raw, brine-salted or dry-salted, were digested using a gastrointestinal in vitro model. Fish lipid extracts before and after digestion were analyzed by 1 H NMR, and the headspace composition of the digestates was investigated by SPME-GC/MS. During digestion, not only lipolysis, but also fish lipid oxidation took place. This latter was evidenced by the generation of conjugated dienes supported on chains having also hydroperoxy- and hydroxy-groups (primary oxidation compounds), by the increase of volatile secondary oxidation products, and by the decrease of the antioxidant 2,6-di-tert-butyl-hydroxytoluene (BHT). Likewise, esterification and Maillard-type reactions also occurred. Salting, and especially dry-salting, enhanced all these reactions, except for lipolysis, during digestion.

Addition of salt or salt-containing water to food is one of the oldest and most effective preservation methods in history; indeed, salt-cured foods are generally recognized as microbiologically safe due to their high salinity. However, a number of microbiological risks remain. The microbiological hazards and risks associated with salt-cured foods must be addressed more in-depth as they are likely to be underestimated by previous studies. This review examined a number of scientific reports and articles about the microbiological safety of salt-cured foods, which included salted, brined, pickled, and/or marinated vegetables, meat, and seafood. The following subjects are covered in order: (1) clinical cases and outbreaks attributed to salt-cured foods; (2) the prevalence of foodborne pathogens in such foods; (3) the molecular, physiological, and virulent responses of the pathogens to the presence of NaCl in both laboratory media and food matrices; (4) the survival and fate of microorganisms in salt-cured foods (in the presence/absence of additional processes); and (5) the interaction between NaCl and other stressors in food processes (e.g., acidification, antimicrobials, drying, and heating). The review provides a comprehensive overview of potentially hazardous pathogens associated with salt-cured foods and suggests further research into effective intervention techniques that will reduce their levels in the food chain., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A disregarded nutritional feature of cheeses is their high acid-forming potential when ingested, which is associated with deleterious effects on consumers' health. This work aimed to characterize the acid-forming potential of a blue-veined cheese during manufacturing to identify the main steps of the process involved in this phenomenon. Sampling was performed on 3 batches at 10 steps of the cheese-making process: reception of raw milk, pasteurization, maturation of milk, coagulation, stirring, draining of the curds, and 4 ripening stages: 21, 28, 42, and 56d. The acid-forming potential of each sample was evaluated by (1) the calculation of the potential renal acid load (PRAL) index (considering protein, Cl, P, Na, K, Mg, and Ca contents), and (2) its organic anion content (lactate and citrate), considered as alkalinizing elements. Draining and salting were identified as the main steps responsible for generation of the acid-forming potential of cheese. The draining process induced an increase in the PRAL index from 1.2mEq/100g in milk to 10.4mEq/100g in drained curds due to the increase in dry matter and the loss of alkaline minerals into the whey. The increase in PRAL value (20.3mEq/100g at d 56) following salting resulted from an imbalance between the strong acidogenic elements (Cl, P, and proteins) and the main alkalinizing ones (Na and Ca). Particularly, Cl had a major effect on the PRAL value. Regarding organic anions, draining induced a loss of 93% of the citrate content in initial milk. The lactate content increased as fermentation occurred (1,297.9mg/100g in drained curds), and then decreased during ripening (519.3mg/100g at d 56). This lactate level probably helps moderate the acidifying potential of end products. Technological strategies aimed at limiting the acid-forming potential of cheeses are proposed and deserve further research to evaluate their nutritional relevance., (Copyright © 2016 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A phosphoproteomic profile of myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic proteins of muscle in response to salting was investigated. Myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic proteins extracted from salted meat with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5% salt for 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 16 h were analyzed by SDS-PAGE electrophoresis and fluorescence staining. The global phosphorylation of myofibrillar proteins in salted meat was lower than that in control muscle at 16 h of salting ( p <0.05), and the global phosphorylation of myofibrillar proteins in 3% salt-treated group at 16 h was the lowest. However, salting showed no significant effect on phosphorylation of sarcoplasmic proteins. Four categories of phosphorylated protein were identified by LC-MS/MS, involved in stress response (heat shock protein), glycometabolism (glycogen phosphorylase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase), oxidation or reduction (superoxide dismutase), and others (myoglobin), the phosphorylation of which was affected by salting. Thus, salting may influence meat quality through protein phosphorylation, which regulates protein degradation and glycolysis.

The modification of the salting procedure (from a three- to a two-salt coverage steps) and its effects on quality and stability properties has been investigated to reduce NaCl content of traditional dry-cured ham. The study was applied on green hams of small-S and large-L weight classes. Results evidenced that a two-salt coverage steps salting could be applied to reduce significantly NaCl content of S-size hams and to reach the physico-chemical conditions required for microbial stability at the end of ripening. The final salt content of the products results (p < 0.05) to depend on salting procedure and initial weight of the hams, while limited differences on quality properties have been observed being the latter mainly associated to the pattern of the volatile compounds. In particular, aldehydes and hexanal content were lower in hams undergone to a 2-steps salting. Sensory analysis evidenced that the hams with reduced NaCl (2s-S and 2s-L) were less easy to chew, less salty and with a lower intensity of the smoky flavour in respect to the 3s- ones. The study confirmed the feasibility of salt content reduction of traditional dry-cured hams by modifying the salting process. However, the weight of the initial tights resulted a critical factor in affecting salting diffusion, salt content and water activity of the ripened products, their quality and stability properties.

The study was aimed at assessing the quality of pumpkin (Cucuribita Spp.) slices that were subjected to pre-drying treatments and drying using two drying methods (uncontrolled sun and oven) fruit accessions. Pre-drying had significant (P ≤ 0.05) effect on the quality of dried pumpkin slices. 10 % salt solution dipped pumpkin fruit slices had good chemical quality. The two-way interaction between drying methods and pre-drying treatments had significant (P ≤ 0.05) effect on chemical qualities. Pumpkin subjected to salt solution dipping treatment and oven dried had higher chemical concentrations. Among the pumpkin fruit accessions, pumpkin accession 8007 had the superior TSS, total sugar and sugar to acid ratio after drying. Among the three pre-drying treatment, salt solution dipping treatment had significant (P ≤ 0.05) effect and the most efficient pre-drying treatment to retain the quality of dried pumpkin fruits without significant chemical quality deterioration. Salt dipping treatment combined with low temperature (60 °C) oven air circulation drying is recommended to maintain quality of dried pumpkin slices. However, since direct sun drying needs extended drying time due to fluctuation in temperature, it is recommended to develop or select best successful solar dryer for use in combination with pre-drying salt dipping or blanching treatments.

In this study, the proximate composition, free amino acids content and 5'-nucleotides in frozen, canned and salted Agaricus bisporus (A. bisporus) were investigated. We found that the three kinds of A. bisporus products were good sources of protein, with amount varying in the ranges of 16.54-24.35g/100g (dry weight). Freezing, canning and salting process, followed by 6months of storage led to a significant reduction in free amino acids, especially tyrosine, alanine, glutamine and cysteine. There were medium levels of MSG-like amino acids in frozen A. bisporus and canned A. bisporus, and low levels of MSG-like amino acids in salted A. bisporus. The mount of flavor 5'-nucleotides in frozen A. bisporus was higher than that of canned and salted A. bisporus. The present study thus suggests that freezing is beneficial for the preservation of A. bisporus., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The effect of wet and dry saltings on the physicochemical changes of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) muscle was investigated. Dry salting resulted in the higher rate of salt uptake into tilapia muscle facilitating the faster decrease in Aw (p<0.05). The pH of both dry and wet salted fish muscles tended to decrease throughout the salting time and the lower pH was found in dry salted fish (p<0.05). The increase in the protein content in the salting medium was found during wet salted tilapia production (p<0.05). The TCA-soluble peptide content tended to decrease with increasing the salting time in both salting methods (p<0.05), suggesting a leaching effect of the salting medium or the exudative loss occurred in salted tilapia. Wet salting caused the greater formation of metmyoglobin in tilapia muscle when compared to dry salting at all time points (p<0.05) and the content of metmyoglobin increased as salting time increased in both salting methods (p<0.05). A lowered metmyoglobin with a lowered redness index of dry salted tilapia muscle was found, indicating the continuous oxidation of metmyoglobin to other hypervalent derivatives and hence the discolouration of salted tilapia. Lipid hydrolysis and oxidation of tilapia meat occurred with varying degrees in both salting methods and these changes depended on salting time. Dry salting resulted in a higher oxidation of tilapia muscle lipid as indicated by the higher PV and TBARS throughout the salting period when compared with that of wet salting (p<0.05). In conclusion, the physicochemical changes of tilapia muscle during salting are governed by the salting method and the salting time applied., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)