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Direct Laser Interference Patterning (DLIP) stands out as a versatile and cost-effective method for functionalizing material surfaces at high throughputs. Monitoring the dynamics of the structure formation can lead to a deeper understanding of the interplay between the main factors governing the process and ultimately to optimize the final texture. Here, the formation of gratings on stainless steel by DLIP with ns-pulses is studied using a diffraction-based approach, which measures the time-resolved reflectivity (TRR) of the sample. Measurements are performed for single pulses across different laser fluences. The melting dynamics are analyzed and compared with numerical results. By correlating the recorded signals with the structure depths, growth rates of 11 nm/ns and 57 nm/ns were estimated for fluences of 1.9 J/cm 2 and 5.3 J/cm 2 , respectively. Furthermore, two growth regimes are identified. In the fast growth phase, the melting time increased from 73 to 380 ns for fluences of 1.9 J/cm 2 and 5.9 J/cm 2 , respectively, showing a good agreement with the performed thermal simulations., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Surface structuring using nano-second lasers can be used to enhance certain properties of a material or even to introduce new ones. One way to create these structures efficiently is direct laser interference patterning using different polarization vector orientations of the interfering beams. However, experimentally measuring the fabrication process of these structures is very challenging due to small length and time scales. Therefore, a numerical model is developed and presented for resolving the physical effects during formation the predicting the resolidified surface structures. This three-dimensional, compressible computational fluid dynamics model considers the gas, liquid, and solid material phase and includes various physical effects, such as heating due to the laser beam for both parallel and radial polarization vector orientations, melting, solidification, and evaporation, Marangoni convection, and volumetric expansion. The numerical results reveal a very good qualitatively and quantitatively agreement with experimental reference data. Resolidified surface structures match both in overall shape as well as crater diameter and height, respectively. Furthermore, this model gives valuable insight on different quantities during the formation of these surface structures, such as velocity and temperature. In future, this model can be used to predict surface structures based on various process input parameters., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Heinrich et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

In this study, the cutting of borosilicate glass plates in ambient air and water with a 355 nm wavelength picosecond laser was carried out. Low (2.1-2.75 W) and high (15.5 W) average laser power cutting regimes were studied. Thorough attention was paid to the effect of the hatch distance on the cutting quality and characteristic strength of glass strips cut in both environments. At optimal cutting parameters, ablation efficiency and cutting rates were the highest but cut sidewalls were covered with periodically recurring ridges. Transition to smaller hatch values improved the cut sidewall quality by suppressing the ridge formation, but negatively affected the ablation efficiency and overall strength of glass strips. Glass strips cut in water in the low-laser-power regime had the highest characteristic strength of 117.6 and 107.3 MPa for the front and back sides, respectively. Cutting in a high-laser-power regime was only carried out in water. At 15.5 W, the ablation efficiency and effective cutting speed per incident laser power increased by 16% and 22%, respectively, compared with cutting in water in a low-laser-power regime.

Uniform periodic microstructure formation over large areas is generally challenging in Direct Laser Interference Patterning (DLIP) due to the Gaussian laser beam intensity distribution inherent to most commercial laser sources. In this work, a diffractive fundamental beam-mode shaper (FBS) element is implemented in a four-beam DLIP optical setup to generate a square-shaped top-hat intensity distribution in the interference volume. The interference patterns produced by a standard configuration and the developed setup are measured and compared. In particular, the impact of both laser intensity distributions on process throughput as well as fill-factor is investigated by measuring the resulting microstructure height with height error over the structured surface. It is demonstrated that by utilizing top-hat-shaped interference patterns, it is possible to produce on average 44.8% deeper structures with up to 60% higher homogeneity at the same throughput. Moreover, the presented approach allows the production of microstructures with comparable height and homogeneity compared to the Gaussian intensity distribution with increased throughput of 53%.

In this study, two-step approaches to fabricate periodic microstructures on polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) substrates are presented to control the wettability of polymeric surfaces. Micropillar arrays with periods between 1.6 and 4.6 µm are patterned by plate-to-plate hot embossing using chromium stamps structured by four-beam Direct Laser Interference Patterning (DLIP). By varying the laser parameters, the shape, spatial period, and structure height of the laser-induced topography on Cr stamps are controlled. After that, the wettability properties, namely the static, advancing/receding contact angles (CAs), and contact angle hysteresis were characterized on the patterned PET and PMMA surfaces. The results indicate that the micropillar arrays induced a hydrophobic state in both polymers with CAs up to 140° in the case of PET, without modifying the surface chemistry. However, the structured surfaces show high adhesion to water, as the droplets stick to the surfaces and do not roll down even upon turning the substrates upside down. To investigate the wetting state on the structured polymers, theoretical CAs predicted by Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter models for selected structured samples with different topographical characteristics are also calculated and compared with the experimental data.

In this study, we report on the optimization of the direct laser interference patterning process by applying the design of experiments approach. The periodic line-like microstructures of a 8.50 µm spatial period were fabricated by a two-beam interference setup with nanosecond laser pulses, varying laser fluence, pulse overlap, and hatch distance. Central composite design with three factors and five levels was implemented to optimize the required number of experiments. The experimental and numerical results show the impact of various structuring process parameters on surface uniformity. The responses measured are the structure height, height error, and waviness of the pattern. An analysis of the microstructures on the patterned surface was conducted by confocal microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. A 3D-characterization method based on morphological filtering, which allows a holistic view of the surface properties, was applied, and a new qualification scheme for surface microstructures was introduced. Empirical models were also developed and validated for establishing relationships between process parameters and performance criteria. Multi-objective optimization was performed to achieve a minimal value of structure height errors and waviness.

Direct laser interference patterning (DLIP) has proven to be a fast and, at the same time, high-resolution process for the fabrication of large-area surface structures. In order to provide structures with adequate quality and defined morphology at the fastest possible fabrication speed, the processing parameters have to be carefully selected. In this work, an analytical model was developed and verified by experimental data, which allows calculating the morphological properties of periodic structures as a function of most relevant laser-processing parameters. The developed model permits to improve the process throughput by optimizing the laser spot diameter, as well as pulse energy, and repetition rate. The model was developed for the structures formed by a single scan of the beam in one direction. To validate the model, microstructures with a 5.5 µm spatial period were fabricated on stainless steel by means of picosecond DLIP (10 ps), using a laser source operating at a 1064 nm wavelength. The results showed a difference of only 10% compared to the experimental results.

The current status of research around the world concurs on the powerful influence of micro- and nano-textured surfaces in terms of surface functionalization. In order to characterize the manufactured topographical morphology with regard to the surface quality or homogeneity, major efforts are still required. In this work, an optical approach for the indirect evaluation of the quality and morphology of surface structures manufactured with Direct Laser Interference Patterning (DLIP) is presented. For testing the designed optical configuration, line-like surface patterns are fabricated at a 1064 nm wavelength on stainless steel with a repetitive distance of 4.9 µm, utilizing a two-beam DLIP configuration. Depending on the pulse to pulse overlap and hatch distance, different single and complex pattern geometries are produced, presenting non-homogenous and homogenous surface patterns. The developed optical system permitted the successfully classification of different pattern geometries, in particular, those showing single-scale morphology (high homogeneity). Additionally, the fabricated structures were measured using confocal microscopy method, and the obtained topographies were correlated with the recorded optical images.

In this work, it is demonstrated that direct laser interference patterning (DLIP) is a method capable of producing microtextured metallic molds for hot embossing processes. Three different metals (Cr, Ni, and Cu), relevant for the mold production used in nanoimprinting systems, are patterned by DLIP using a picosecond laser source emitting at a 532 nm wavelength. The results show that the quality and surface topography of the produced hole-like micropatterns are determined by the laser processing parameters, such as irradiated energy density and the number of pulses. Laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) are also observed on the treated surfaces, whose shapes, periodicities, and orientations are strongly dependent on the accumulated fluence. Finally, the three structured metals are used as embossing molds to imprint microlenses on polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) foils using an electrohydraulic press. Topographical profiles demonstrate that the obtained structures are comparable to the masters showing a satisfactory reproduction of the texture. The polymeric microlens arrays that showed the best surface homogeneity and overall quality were those embossed with the Cr molds.

Fabricating aluminium surfaces with superhydrophobic and ice-repellent properties present nowadays a challenging task. In this work, multifunctional structures are manufactured by direct laser writing and direct laser interference patterning methods using pulsed infrared laser radiation (1064 nm). Different periodic patterns with feature sizes ranging from 7.0 to 50.0 µm are produced. In addition, hierarchical textures are produced combining both mentioned laser based methods. Water contact angle tests at room temperature showed that all produced patterns reached the superhydrophobic state after 13 to 16 days. In addition, these experiments were repeated at substrate temperatures from -30 °C to 80 °C allowing to determine three wettability behaviours as a function of the temperature. The patterned surfaces also showed ice-repellent properties characterized by a near three-fold increase in the droplets freezing times compared to the untreated samples. Using finite element simulations, it was found that the main reason behind the ice-prevention is the change in the droplet geometrical shape due to the hydrophobic nature of the treated surfaces. Finally, dynamic tests of droplets imping the treated aluminium surfaces cooled down to -20 °C revealed that only on the hierarchically patterned surface, the droplets were able to bounce off the substrate.

Superhydrophobic natural surfaces usually have multiple levels of structure hierarchy, particularly microstructures covered with nano-roughness. The multi-scale nature of such a surface reduces the wetting of water and oils, and supports self-cleaning properties. In this work, in order to broaden our understanding of the wetting properties of technical surfaces, biomimetic surface patterns were fabricated on stainless steel with single and multi-scale periodic structures using direct laser interference patterning (DLIP). Micropillars with a spatial period of 5.5 µm and a structural depth of 4.2 µm were fabricated and covered by a sub-micro roughness by using ultrashort laser pulses, thus obtaining a hierarchical geometry. In order to distinguish the influence of the different features on the wettability behavior, a nanosecond laser source was used to melt the nano-roughness, and thus to obtain single-scale patterns. Then, a systematic comparison between the single- and multi-scale structures was performed. Although, the treated surfaces showed hydrophilic behavior directly after the laser treatment, over time they reached a steady-state hydrophobic condition. However, the multi-scale structured metal showed a contact angle 31° higher than the single-scale geometry when the steady-state conditions were reached. Furthermore, the impact of the surface chemistry was investigated by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses. Finally, a hydrophobizing agent was applied to the laser treated samples in order to further enhance the water contact angles and to determine the pure contribution of the surface topography. In the latter case, the multi-scale periodic microstructures reached static contact angles of 152° ± 2° and a contact angle hysteresis of only 4° ± 2°, while the single-scale structures did not show superhydrophobic behavior. These results definitely suggest that multi-scale DLIP structures in conjunction with a surface chemistry modification can promote a superhydrophobic regime.

This study focuses on the development of a strategy to produce periodic structures with a variable spatial period for increasing the homogeneity of structural colours by means of direct laser interference patterning. Using a four-beam interference configuration, hole-like periodic arrays are produced on stainless steel with a 70 ps pulsed laser source operating at 532 nm laser wavelength. The laser processing parameters are optimised for obtaining patterns with the highest possible diffraction efficiency and thus showing the highest possible colour intensity. A model for calculating the required spatial period to obtain a defined colour under specific conditions of illumination and observation angles is presented. A very good agreement between the captured structural colour spectrum and the real visible spectrum of light was obtained. In addition, a strategy for mixing holographic colours, in particular for obtaining the white colour is developed. Finally, the developed model is successfully integrated into machine software, in order to automatically process images that exhibit required colours at certain viewing conditions. The produced patterns are characterised using confocal microscopy and the efficiency of the first diffraction order was measured by optical spectroscopy.

This work addresses the fabrication of hydrophobic surface structures by means of direct laser interference patterning using an optical setup optimized for high throughput processing. The developed optical assembly is used to shape the laser beam intensity as well as to obtain the two sub beams required for creating the interference pattern. The resulting beam profile consists of an elongated rectangular laser spot with 5.0 mm × 0.1 mm size, which enables the optimized utilization of the laser fluence available from an ns-pulsed laser with a wavelength of 1064 nm. Depending on the pulse repetition rate applied, heating of the substrate volume generated by heat accumulation encouraged exceptionally high aspect ratios of the trench structures due to melt flow dynamic material deformation. Finally, water contact angle measurements of the produced structures permitted the demonstration of the capability of controlling the wetting angle, in which this effect does not only depend on the height of the generated surface structures but also on their morphology., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Laser interference ablation in silicon using femto-, pico-, and nanosecond pulses was investigated. The experimental and computational results provide information about nanoscale thermal diffusion during the ultra-short laser-matter interaction. The temperature modulation depth was introduced as a parameter for quality assessment of laser interference ablation. Based on the experiments and calculations, a new semi-empirical formula which combines the interference period with the laser pulse duration, the thermal modulation depth and the thermal diffusivity of the material was derived. This equation is in excellent agreement with the experimental and modelling results of laser interference ablation. This new formula can be used for selecting the appropriate pulse duration for periodical structuring with the required resolution and quality.

A terahertz (THz) imaging system based on narrow band microbolometer sensors (NBMS) and a novel diffractive lens was developed for spectroscopic microscopy applications. The frequency response characteristics of the THz antenna-coupled NBMS were determined employing Fourier transform spectroscopy. The NBMS was found to be a very sensitive frequency selective sensor which was used to develop a compact all-electronic system for multispectral THz measurements. This system was successfully applied for principal components analysis of optically opaque packed samples. A thin diffractive lens with a numerical aperture of 0.62 was proposed for the reduction of system dimensions. The THz imaging system enhanced with novel optics was used to image for the first time non-neoplastic and neoplastic human colon tissues with close to wavelength-limited spatial resolution at 584 GHz frequency. The results demonstrated the new potential of compact RT THz imaging systems in the fields of spectroscopic analysis of materials and medical diagnostics.

Reflective terahertz imaging with a first-order Hermite-Gaussian laser beam was experimentally investigated. High spatial resolution targets prepared by direct laser microprocessing were used to evaluate the performance. The reflection imaging system at 2.524 THz frequency demonstrated up to diffraction limited resolution using the single focusing mirror with the numerical aperture not smaller than 0.6. The TEM(01) mode laser beam was also applied for practical samples such as silicon solar cell terahertz (THz) imaging. It is shown that usage of appropriate optics enables us to obtain high-quality THz images with the multimode laser beam.