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Medical practices, clinical practice guidelines, clinical performance measures and measurements, and a variety of health care-related administrative decisions, such as insurance coverage decisions, are claiming to be "evidence based" with increasing frequency. In this paper we examine the "evidence based" label; discuss how evidence ought to have been assembled, evaluated, and synthesized; and when evidence is sufficient for the "evidence-based" moniker to rightfully apply. We also highlight several considerations other than the strength of evidence that are relevant to several common types of health care-related administrative decisions and that influence the extent to which the resulting decisions are truly evidence based.

Aims: To report the item specific responses of the VF-14 in a population of patients undergoing cataract surgery in their first eye and to determine whether or not the VF-14 can be reduced without compromising its performance as an index of cataract related visual impairment., Methods: The item specific responses to the VF-14 were analysed before (771 patients) and 4 months after (552 patients) cataract surgery in one eye to determine if the VF-14 index can be reduced without compromising its performance. Patients studied were selected from a cross sectional longitudinal study of patients undergoing cataract surgery in 72 ophthalmologist's offices located in three metropolitan regions of the United States., Results: Pairwise correlations between items in the VF-14 were all less than 0.6, indicating that no items could be removed solely on the basis of redundancy. 10 items correlated moderately with change in trouble, and 11 correlated moderately with change in satisfaction (r >0.15) at 4 months after cataract extraction. Eleven items demonstrated an effect size >0.4 at 4 months. These 11 items were either important for detecting cataract related functional disability or for quantifying the extent to which cataract impaired function. Additionally, 11 items were needed to detect adequately individuals with functional impairment. Three items (recognising people, cooking, and reading large print) were less responsive to cataract extraction and were more strongly associated with ocular comorbidities., Conclusions: While previous reports indicate that the VF-14 can be significantly shortened, our analysis only justifies removing three items. While the resulting VF-11 has properties similar to the VF-14, the limited time savings do not justify altering this already validated instrument.

There are between 2 and 13 million Americans with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Recent reports suggest that their treatment is currently suboptimal. To further investigate this issue, patterns of practice for the treatment of patients with CKD who were enrolled in a large health maintenance organization in New Mexico were analyzed. Among the >200,000 patients who were enrolled in the health maintenance organization between 1994 and 1997, a cohort of 1658 patients who exhibited at least two gender-specific, elevated creatinine concentrations (Cr), separated by at least 90 d, were identified. The proportions of patients with Cr values of <2.0, 2.0 to 2.9, 3.0 to 3.9, and > or =4.0 mg/dl were 73, 17, 3, and 7%, respectively. The majority of patients were treated by a primary care physician until Cr values reached 3.0 mg/dl, at which time a nephrologist was consulted. Care tended to be transferred to the nephrologist when the Cr reached 4.0 mg/dl. Only 7.4% of patients received erythropoietin (EPO). Use of EPO increased as Cr increased. EPO was unlikely to be prescribed unless the patient had visited a nephrologist. Fewer than one half of all patients with CKD and fewer than 20% of patients with CKD with Cr values of > or =4.0 mg/dl received an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI). Nephrologists were not more likely to prescribe ACEI than were primary care physicians. Diabetic patients were more likely to receive ACEI than were nondiabetic patients, but ACEI use was quite low even among diabetic patients with CKD. The average number of hospitalizations per patient-year increased as Cr increased and was more than twice as high for patients with Cr values of > or =4.0 mg/dl, compared with those with Cr values of <2.0 mg/dl. The reasons for hospitalization were more likely to be related to comorbidities than to CKD itself, however. There are many opportunities to improve the care of patients with CKD. Better adherence to practices known to be of clinical benefit for patients with CKD not only will improve patient outcomes but also may reduce the costs of care. Providers, policy-makers, and payers should view CKD as a major public health problem and initiate innovative programs to address this growing patient population.

This study is designed to estimate the prevalence of and gain further insight into the characteristics of the chronic kidney disease (CKD) population in a large US health maintenance organization (HMO) to better understand the CKD population in the United States overall. Analyses were performed using data from a staff and network model HMO in the southwestern United States with more than 150,000 members per year during 1994 to 1997. The estimated prevalence of CKD in the HMO population varied from 0.4% to 7.1%, depending on the definition of CKD used. Regardless of the definition, CKD was more common in men compared with women and in patients with diabetes mellitus and/or hypertension. Applying the age- and sex-specific prevalence rates in the HMO to the US population in 1990, we estimate there were approximately 9.1 million Americans with at least one elevated sex-specific creatinine (Cr) value and approximately 4.2 million Americans with at least two elevated Cr values separated by 90 days or greater, a more rigorous definition of CKD. From these results, it is apparent that there are a large number of patients in the United States with CKD. Most have not been identified because screening for CKD generally is not performed. Considering the high prevalence of CKD and the high cost and clinical morbidity associated with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), it is clear that CKD is an important public health problem. Early identification of patients with CKD would allow treatment that could slow the progression to ESRD, improve clinical outcomes, and constrain the growth of costs in the ESRD program. The time has come for a structured public and professional educational program to address this serious condition.

Purpose: To evaluate the performance of a questionnaire, the Refractive Status and Vision Profile (RSVP), in the assessment of patient outcomes following refractive surgery., Setting: Patients recruited from 5 refractive surgery practices., Methods: The RSVP was self-administered by patients before and 2 to 6 months after bilateral refractive surgery. Information on uncorrected visual acuity (UCVA), refractive error, and self-reported satisfaction with vision was also collected. Changes in total RSVP scores and in the scores of RSVP subscales (concern, functioning, driving, symptoms, optical problems, glare, and trouble with corrective lenses) were assessed. The relationship between change in the RSVP and subscale scores was assessed in relation to change in traditional clinical measures. The responsiveness of the RSVP to clinically meaningful changes in patients' vision was measured by calculating its effect size., Results: One hundred seventy-six patients completed baseline and postoperative RSVPs and had bilateral refractive surgery. Postoperatively, 92.0% of patients had a UCVA of 20/40 or better in at least 1 eye. Fifteen percent had some worsening in the total RSVP score, and there was substantial variation in the proportion of patients who had worsening in particular subscale scores, ranging from 7.0% who reported worsening in trouble with corrective lenses to 41.5% who reported worsening in driving. Change in satisfaction with vision following surgery was correlated with change in the overall RSVP and subscale scores but not with change in refractive error. A significant worsening in 3 or more RSVP subscales was independently associated with an almost 6-fold (odds ratio 5.84, 95% confidence interval: 1.88,18.13) likelihood of patient report of dissatisfaction with vision, after adjusting for age, sex, preoperative refractive error, and postoperative UCVA. Low scores (ie, minimal dysfunction) on 2 of the RSVP subscales (physical functioning and optical problems) at baseline were predictive of poor postoperative patient outcomes. The RSVP was very sensitive to the intervention of refractive surgery (effect size of 1.2 to 1.4)., Conclusions: The RSVP was able to detect clinically relevant changes in functional status and quality of life after refractive surgery. Change in the RSVP score was correlated with change in patient report of satisfaction and was predictive of postoperative patient satisfaction. The RSVP provides a valuable new metric to assess outcomes of refractive surgery.

Objective/background: To describe the Refractive Status and Vision Profile (RSVP), a questionnaire that measures self-reported vision-related health status (symptoms, functioning, expectations, concern) in persons with refractive error., Design: Cross-sectional study by survey., Participants: The RSVP was self-administered by 550 participants with refractive error (or history of refractive surgery) recruited from five refractive surgery practices and one optometric practice. Information on refraction, uncorrected and best-corrected visual acuity, and history of refractive surgery was obtained from physicians' records., Methods: Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, agreement with global measures of vision (criterion validity), discriminant validity, content validity, and construct validity (associations of scale scores with patient status variables) were assessed using Cronbach's alpha, Spearman rank correlations, factor analysis, and multitrait analysis., Outcome Measures: Scores on the overall RSVP scale (S) and on eight RSVP subscales (functioning, driving, concern, expectations, symptoms, glare, optical problems, problems with corrective lenses) were calculated based on 42 items., Results: Cronbach's alpha was 0.92 for S and ranged from 0.70 to 0.93 for RSVP subscales, indicating good internal consistency. Satisfaction with vision was more strongly associated with S than with refractive error or with visual acuity. Individuals with more refractive error had significantly lower (worse) scores for S and for subscales concern, functioning, driving, optical problems, and glare. Scores for S and for subscales concern, functioning, optical problems, and driving remained significantly associated with satisfaction with vision after adjustment for age, gender, corrective lens type, and refractive error., Conclusions: The RSVP measures a range of visual, functional, and psychologic impacts of refractive error that are likely to be important to patients. The RSVP would be a useful tool for evaluating interventions for correction of refractive error and may be useful for assessing refractive surgery candidates in clinical practice.

This report describes the approach the National Kidney Foundation-Dialysis Outcomes Quality Initiative (NKF-DOQI) used to assess the strength of published evidence pertinent to individual NKF-DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines, as well as the relationship between that approach and methods used by the US Preventive Services Task Force, the Cochrane Collaboration, and the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research to rate the quality and/or strength of evidence. We also present the results of an analysis of the strength of evidence underlying the NKF-DOQI Guidelines showing that one cannot infer the quality of evidence reported in a study (rated either on a 0-to-1 scale or categorically as excellent, very good, good, fair, or poor) simply by knowing the type of study design used (randomized trial, nonrandomized trial, natural experiment, cohort study, cross-sectional study, case-control study, case report). Issues related to assessment of the strength of evidence underlying a practice guideline opposed to that reported in an individual study are highlighted.

Rigorously developed clinical practice guidelines have the potential to improve patient outcomes. It is toward that end that the National Kidney Foundation (NKF) launched in March 1995 the Dialysis Outcome Quality Initiative (DOQI), an ambitious effort to develop evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for the care of patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Independent, interdisciplinary work groups conducted a structured review of the content and methodologic rigor of all the published literature pertinent to four selected topics: hemodialysis adequacy, peritoneal dialysis adequacy, vascular access, and anemia. Following expert, organizational, and public review, the guidelines were issued in September and October 1997. An implementation plan that called for widespread dissemination of the guidelines and facilitation of adoption of them has resulted in their broad acceptance and Integration into quality improvement efforts. Additional guidelines on nutrition have recently been completed, while others on bone disease, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia are in various stages of planning or development. A major determinant of poor outcome of maintenance dialysis patients is the debilitated state of many individuals with ESRD at the time that they commence dialysis therapy. The recognition of this problem has stimulated an interest in extending the guidelines to management of patients with less severe renal insufficiency, well before they need renal replacement therapy; and to the early detection of renal insufficiency by a proteinuria and albuminuria risk assessment, detection, and elimination (PARADE) program. What started as an initiative to improve the quality of care of dialysis patients has evolved into a considerably expanded effort to making lives better for all individuals with any level of renal insufficiency.

Purpose: To report the results of the first 2 years of experience with an American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO) cataract surgery registry; to compare patient characteristics, operative procedures, and patient outcomes observed in the registry to those observed in the Cataract PORT study; and to discuss the current shortcomings and potential benefits of a national cataract surgery registry., Design: Observational study of episodes of cataract surgery reported by a self-selected sample of 249 ophthalmologists., Participants: Seven thousand six hundred twenty-six patients undergoing cataract surgery during 1996 and 1997., Methods: Beginning in January 1996, participation in the AAO cataract surgery registry was offered to all ophthalmologists. Participants could use software or paper data collection forms to submit a common set of data regarding patients' demographics, preoperative ophthalmologic history, physical examination and test results, functional status and symptoms, intraoperative procedures and events, and postoperative outcomes for all patients undergoing first or second eye cataract surgery. Data were transmitted to a central database, where they were aggregated and analyzed. Findings were compared with those observed in the Cataract PORT study, which was conducted in 1991 and 1992., Results: Between January 1, 1996, and February 28, 1998, 249 ophthalmologists submitted data on at least one patient who underwent cataract surgery. A total of 7626 patients undergoing first or second eye surgery were enrolled, with all preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative data forms submitted for 3342 patients (44%). The preoperative characteristics of patients reported to National Eyecare Outcomes Network (NEON) were similar to those of patients enrolled in the Cataract PORT study except for a higher reported prevalence of ocular comorbidity in NEON patients. Use of retrobulbar anesthesia was reported far less commonly, and use of topical anesthesia, phacoemulsification, and foldable intraocular lenses was reported far more often for NEON than for Cataract PORT study patients. Patient outcomes reported to NEON were similar to those observed in the Cataract PORT study., Main Outcome Measures: Visual acuity, VF-14, Cataract Symptom Score, surgical complications., Conclusions: During the first 2 years of NEON, ophthalmologist participation in the NEON cataract surgery database was low and consisted of a self-selected and likely nonrepresentative sample of ophthalmologists. The representativeness of patients for whom data were reported is unknown. In addition, complete data were submitted on only a minority of patients who were enrolled. Even so, the preoperative characteristics of patients on whom data were submitted to NEON were similar to those of patients enrolled in the Cataract PORT study. The initial experience with NEON demonstrates that it is technically possible to collect clinical data from, and report aggregated results to, practicing clinicians' offices. In addition, at least some practicing clinicians are willing to spend the time required to participate in the NEON registry. The NEON cataract surgery database thus has the potential to provide a practical means for tracking practice patterns and patient outcomes in real time. If a representative sample of physicians was willing to contribute data systematically and accurately over time, initiatives such as NEON could provide a means for professional societies and physicians to play a leadership role in defining and monitoring quality of care.

Previous estimates of Medicare beneficiaries total and out-of-pocket spending on outpatient prescription drugs have largely been based on data from the 1995 Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey and have focused on how expenditures vary among beneficiaries with different demographic characteristics. This paper reports the results of an analysis of prescription claims from 1998 for more than 375,000 elderly persons whose prescription benefit was managed by Merck-Medco Managed Care. In addition to examining how total and out-of-pocket drug spending in a well-insured population varies by age and sex, we report how total and condition-specific drug spending varies for elderly persons with ten common chronic diseases. Our results illustrate the highly skewed nature of prescription drug spending, even among those with drug coverage, and underscore the particularly high cost burden that pharmaceuticals place on elderly people with chronic diseases.

Background: Routine preoperative medical testing is commonly performed in patients scheduled to undergo cataract surgery, although the value of such testing is uncertain. We performed a study to determine whether routine testing helps reduce the incidence of intraoperative and postoperative medical complications., Methods: We randomly assigned 19,557 elective cataract operations in 18,189 patients at nine centers to be preceded or not preceded by a standard battery of medical tests (electrocardiography, complete blood count, and measurement of serum levels of electrolytes, urea nitrogen, creatinine, and glucose), in addition to a history taking and physical examination. Adverse medical events and interventions on the day of surgery and during the seven days after surgery were recorded., Results: Medical outcomes were assessed in 9408 patients who underwent 9626 cataract operations that were not preceded by routine testing and in 9411 patients who underwent 9624 operations that were preceded by routine testing. The most frequent medical events in both groups were treatment for hypertension and arrhythmia (principally bradycardia). The overall rate of complications (intraoperative and postoperative events combined) was the same in the two groups (31.3 events per 1000 operations). There were also no significant differences between the no-testing group and the testing group in the rates of intraoperative events (19.2 and 19.7, respectively, per 1000 operations) and postoperative events (12.6 and 12.1 per 1000 operations). Analyses stratified according to age, sex, race, physical status (according to the American Society of Anesthesiologists classification), and medical history revealed no benefit of routine testing., Conclusions: Routine medical testing before cataract surgery does not measurably increase the safety of the surgery.

Objective: To examine the impact of a policy restricting reimbursement for Medicaid anti-ulcer drugs on anti-ulcer drug use and peptic-related hospitalizations., Data Sources/study Setting: In addition to U.S. Census Bureau data, all of the following from Florida: Medicaid anti-ulcer drug claims data, 1989-1993; Medicaid eligibility data, 1989-1993; and acute care nonfederal hospital discharge abstract data (Medicaid and non-Medicaid), 1989-1993., Study Design: In this observational study, a Poisson multiple regression model was used to compare changes, after policy implementation, in Medicaid reimbursement for prescription anti-ulcer drugs as well as hospitalization rates between pre- and post-implementation periods in Medicaid versus non-Medicaid patients hospitalized with peptic ulcer disease., Principal Findings: Following policy implementation, the rate of Medicaid reimbursement for anti-ulcer drugs decreased 33 percent (p < .001). No associated increase occurred in the rate of Medicaid peptic-related hospitalizations., Conclusions: Florida's policy restricting Medicaid reimbursement for anti-ulcer drugs was associated with a substantial reduction in outpatient anti-ulcer drug utilization without any significant increase in the rate of hospitalization for peptic-related conditions.

To determine the extent to which actual practices become more consistent over time with those advocated in Dialysis Outcomes Quality Initiative Guidelines, clinical performance measures (CPMs) that are based on the DOQI Guidelines will need to be developed and implemented. CPMs also can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions that are undertaken to promote compliance with specific Guideline recommendations, to validate DOQI Guidelines that were based in whole or in part on expert opinion, and to protect against erosion of the quality of care delivered to end-stage renal disease patients that could occur as a result of economic pressures. To achieve these goals, CPMs must be valid, reliable, and practical to use. A federally sponsored effort to develop such CPMs is currently underway. This report presents an overview of CPMs and the challenges involved in developing technically sound specifications for CPMs that are based on DOQI guidelines.

A decision-analytical simulation model was constructed to perform a pharmacoeconomic analysis of the following 3 treatment strategies for previously untreated cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis in patients with AIDS: (i) intravenous foscarnet (IVF) for induction and maintenance therapy; (ii) intravenous ganciclovir (IVG) for induction and maintenance therapy; and (iii) intravenous ganciclovir for induction therapy, followed by oral ganciclovir for maintenance therapy (IVG-ORG). Patients who experienced significant adverse effects during, or who failed, initial therapy were switched once to one of the other 2 treatments. The model was used to estimate the direct medical cost (from the perspective of a public payer), survival, and survival adjusted for disutility because of lost vision, for each strategy in the first year following treatment initiation. The expected first-year costs of treatment initiated with IVF, IVG and IVG-ORG were $US47,918, $US38,817 and $US32,036 (1994 values), respectively, while expected first-year survival was 41 weeks, 35 weeks and 35 weeks, respectively. The incremental cost per incremental year of survival using IVF was $US78,000 versus IVG and $US138,000 versus IVG-ORG before adjustment for lost vision, and $US93,000 versus IVG and $US166,000 versus IVG-ORG after adjustment for lost vision. About 23% of the cost of the IVG treatment strategy was attributable to treatment-related adverse events, compared with 14% of the cost of IVF and 16% of the cost of IVG-ORG. Because of the high failure rate with IVG-ORG, initial treatment with IVG-ORG frequently led to switching to another treatment. Only 27% of the costs associated with the IVG-ORG treatment strategy were in fact attributable to the cost of induction and maintenance therapy prior to a switch to alternative treatment. In this analysis, initial treatment with IVG-ORG was the least costly approach for treating CMV retinitis in patients with AIDS. Initial treatment with IVF resulted in slightly longer survival adjusted for vision-related quality of life. New treatments for AIDS may reduce the survival benefit of initial treatment with IVF.

Objective: To critically appraise the content of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM)/Society for Reproductive Technology (SART) Registry., Design: English-language literature review., Patient(s): Women undergoing treatment with assisted reproductive technology (ART)., Intervention(s): Current ART treatments, including IVF, GIFT, zygote intrafollopian transfer (ZIFT), oocyte micromanipulation, and cryopreserved embryo transfers., Main Outcome Measure(s): Compliance with clinical practice guidelines, and casemix-adjusted rates of live delivery, clinical pregnancy, ectopic pregnancy, miscarriage, birth defects, implantation, fertilization, and retrieval., Result(s): Outcomes should be adjusted for variation in patient characteristics known to affect prognosis, including maternal age, the duration of infertility, the presumed cause(s) of infertility, the patient's prior history of treatment for infertility, and diethylstilbestrol exposure. Outcome rates should be reported using the patient as the denominator, as well as cycle, retrieval, and transfer. The statistical significance of observed differences in events rates should be indicated. Because widely accepted clinical practice guidelines related to performance of ART procedures are not available, compliance with practice guidelines cannot currently be assessed., Conclusion(s): Reports based on ASRM/SART Registry data can be enhanced by refined casemix adjustment, assessing outcome rates per patient, as well as per component of ART procedure, and by providing an indication of the statistical significance of observed differences in event rates. In addition, a critical appraisal of available evidence related to particular aspects of infertility management would help clarify the areas in which there is an evidentiary basis for formulation of practice guidelines, as well as topics requiring additional clinical research.

Study Design: Post hoc analysis of data from the National Low Back Pain Study, a prospective observational multicenter study of patients referred for the evaluation and treatment of persistent low back problems., Objective: To identify patient characteristics associated with use of particular diagnostic imaging examinations in patients with persistent low back problems., Summary of Background Data: The Agency for Health Care Policy and Research clinical practice guidelines on low back problems suggest that the use of particular diagnostic imaging tests for a given patient should be based on specific characteristics of that patient., Methods: Use of diagnostic imaging examinations in 2,374 patients with persistent low back problems who were enrolled in the National Low Back Pain Study from 1986 to 1991 was analyzed. Stepwise logistic regression was used to identify patient characteristics that distinguish between enrollees who underwent particular imaging studies., Results: Characteristics that distinguished patients who had undergone magnetic resonance imaging from those who had received only lumbo-sacral spine radiographs included higher socioeconomic status, greater resource use in the preceding 12 months, more functional impairment, presence of sciatica, and presence of neurologic signs/symptoms suggestive of nerve root compromise. Suspected soft tissue involvement was characteristic of enrollees who had undergone magnetic resonance imaging, whereas suspected structural involvement characterized patients who received noncontrast computed tomography. Only nonclinical factors, such as higher annual household income, disability compensation, and male gender distinguished enrollees who had undergone both magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography-myelography from those who received only computed tomography-myelography., Conclusion: Particular patient socioeconomic and clinical characteristics are associated with receipt of specific imaging studies in evaluation of persistent low back problems.

To assess how preference values that cataract surgery patients assign to their preoperative visual states relate to visual acuity and problems in specific aspects of daily life, the authors interviewed 47 patients scheduled to have cataract surgery. Using a rating-scale technique with a scale from 0 (death) to 1 (excellent health), the patients had a mean preference value of 0.68 for their preoperative vision. Patients' preference values for their preoperative vision were more closely related to problems in specific aspects of daily life (especially feelings of depression and problems interacting with people) than to visual acuity in the operative eye, better eye, or worse eye, or a weighted average of visual acuities in both eyes. These results provide a rationale for relying more on patients' views about the effects of visual impairment than on measures of visual acuity when assessing the need for cataract surgery.

Purpose: To assess the relationship between imaging findings, therapy, and functional outcome in patients with persistent low back pain who are suspected of having herniated nucleus pulposus., Materials and Methods: Data collected during a multicenter, longitudinal study were retrospectively analyzed (n = 1,084). Multivariate regression was used to determine the association between imaging findings, therapy, and functional outcome. The patient outcome measure was disability days: the number of days the patient was unable to perform work-related activities., Results: In patients with at least one normal advanced (imaging other than plain radiography) diagnostic study or with an unconfirmed diagnosis of herniated nucleus pulposus, outcome at 2-year follow-up was no better in patients who were treated than in those who were not. In patients with only abnormal advanced imaging results or with a concordant diagnosis based on clinical and imaging findings, outcome was better in patients who underwent surgery than in those treated nonsurgically. Patients with a free fragment, protrusion, or extrusion that was treated surgically had fewer disability days than patients treated nonsurgically., Conclusion: Advanced diagnostic imaging studies can play an important role in treatment selection in patients with persistent low back pain who are suspected of having herniated nucleus pulposus.

Purpose: There is increased recognition that a rigorous approach to functional assessment should complement the assessment of clinical status. The authors compare the reliability, validity, and responsiveness to clinical change of a visual function index (VF-14) in non-U.S. and in U.S. patients with cataracts., Design: An observational longitudinal study was performed., Participants: One thousand four hundred seven first eye cataract surgery patients were recruited in four international sites: Manitoba (Canada), Denmark, Barcelona (Spain), and the United States., Intervention: Patients were evaluated before cataract surgery and at a 4-month postoperative follow-up visit. Patients completed the preoperative interview and the clinical examination (766 in the United States, 152 in Manitoba, 291 in Denmark, and 198 in Barcelona), and 91.3% of those (1284) also completed the 4-month postoperative follow-up interview and were evaluated postoperatively by an ophthalmologist., Main Outcome Measures: The authors used the following measures: the visual function index (VF-14), the Sickness Impact Profile (SIP), global measures of patients' trouble and satisfaction with vision, and best-corrected visual acuity (VA) in each eye., Results: The VF-14 showed a high internal consistency reliability level in all sites (Cronbach's alpha coefficients > or = 0.84). Correlation of preoperative visual function index scores with the Vision-Related SIP was strong (r = -0.68 in non-U.S. and r = -0.57 in U.S. patients) and with VA in the eye with better vision was moderate (r = 0.40 and r = 0.27, respectively), the pattern of relationships being very similar among U.S. and non-U.S. patients. In patients with only first-eye surgery who reported that their initial trouble with vision had improved, the amount of change in visual function as assessed by the VF-14 (effect size) was large (1.01 for the non-U.S. patients and 1.17 for the U.S. patients)., Conclusions: The non-U.S. versions of the visual function index (VF-14) analyzed are as reliable, valid, and responsive to clinical change as the original U.S. version. These versions are appropriate for international studies of cataract patients outcomes and possibly in routine clinical practice.

Purpose: To assess whether magnetic resonance (MR) imaging has replaced other diagnostic imaging modalities in the evaluation of persistent low back pain., Materials and Methods: Data on diagnostic imaging use in 2,374 adult patients with persistent low back pain in 1987-1990 were analyzed. Multiple logistic regression was used to estimate the annual adjusted odds of lumbosacral spine radiography, MR imaging, unenhanced computed tomography (CT), or CT myelography use. The national cost of diagnostic imaging for persistent low back pain in 1990 relative to 1987 was estimated., Results: The adjusted odds of performing MR imaging in 1990 relative to 1987 was 3.44 (95% confidence interval, 2.63, 4.51), which reflects an estimated increase from 22 studies per 100 enrollees in 1987 to 75 studies per 100 enrollees in 1990. Use of MR imaging in combination with radiography, unenhanced CT, or CT myelography increased. The additional national cost of diagnostic imaging for persistent low back pain in 1990 relative to 1987 was estimated at $70-$176 million., Conclusion: MR imaging was used primarily as an add-on rather than a substitute for other imaging modalities in the evaluation of persistent low back pain. Thus, the volume and cost of diagnostic imaging for persistent low back pain have increased.

Objective: To evaluate the association between cataract extraction and atherosclerosis and its complications., Design: A nationwide case-control study., Setting and Participants: Using a 5% random sample of all Medicare beneficiaries, we analyzed Medicare claims data on 60803 persons 65 years of age and older who underwent cataract extraction in 1986 or 1987 and a control group of 63765 persons matched to the cases for age, race, sex, ZIP code, and reason for Medicare entitlement., Main Outcome Measure: Atherosclerosis and atherosclerosis-related disease and procedures were defined by International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification, codes or by Health Care Financing Administration Common Procedure Classification System (Current Procedural Terminology) codes. The strength of evidence for atherosclerotic disease was categorized on the basis of the types of bills in the Medicare claims file., Results: Odds of atherosclerosis-related morbidity and procedures were higher for cases than for controls. The association decreased with patient age and was strongest in beneficiaries aged 65 to 69 years (odds ratio, 1.30; 95% confidence interval, 1.13-1.48)., Conclusion: Our findings suggest that there is a weak association between a visually significant cataract requiring surgery and atherosclerosis in the younger elderly.

Purpose: Previous analyses of Medicare claims data, as well as clinical series, have suggested that performance of neodymium:YAG (Nd:YAG) laser posterior capsulotomy after extracapsular cataract surgery increases significantly the risk of retinal detachment. However, methodologic problems with previous research limit the strength of conclusions that can be drawn from these earlier studies. This study was designed to resolve those methodological limitations while using a population-based approach for assessment of the independent association between the performance of Nd:YAG laser posterior capsulotomy and pseudophakic retinal detachment., Methods: A nested case-control study was conducted. Medicare beneficiaries who had undergone extracapsular cataract extraction from 1988 to 1990 were identified from a 5% sample of Medicare claims data. Within this cohort, people who were diagnosed or treated for retinal detachment during the years 1988 through 1991 (cases) were identified from Medicare records. Four controls were matched to each case of retinal detachment using an incidence density design. Providers of the patients' cataract and retinal surgery were contacted and asked to provide clinical data for all cases and controls that they had treated., Results: Seven hundred six cases of retinal detachment were originally identified from Medicare records. After exclusions due to ineligibility, a total of 291 cases and 870 matched controls were available for analysis. Conditional logistic regression models showed that a number of factors were associated independently with an excess risk of retinal detachment after cataract surgery. These included Nd:YAG laser capsulotomy (odds ratio [OR] = 3.8; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.4-5.9), a history of retinal detachment (OR = 2.7; 95% CI, 1.2-6.1), a history of lattice degeneration (OR = 6.6; 95% CI, 1.6-27.1), axial length (OR = 1.21/mm; 95% CI, 1.03-1.43), refractive error (OR = 0.92/diopter; 95% CI, 0.88-0.95), and a history of ocular trauma after cataract surgery (OR = 6.1; 95% CI, 4.3-28.2)., Conclusion: Performance of Nd:YAG laser posterior capsulotomy is associated with a significantly elevated risk of retinal detachment in patients who have undergone extracapsular cataract extraction. Other independent risk factors for retinal detachment include axial length, myopia, posterior capsular rupture during surgery, history of retinal detachment or lattice degeneration, and ocular trauma after cataract surgery.

Objectives: To assess the frequency and content of post-operative examinations by ophthalmologists and optometrists for cataract surgery patients without operative complications and to assess the referral patterns of optometrists when complications are identified., Design: In 1992 we conducted a survey of randomly selected members of the American Academy of Ophthalmology and American Optometric Association. Responses were obtained from 538 (82%) of 655 eligible ophthalmologists and 130 (84%) of 154 eligible optometrists., Results: Eighty-eight percent of responding ophthalmologists reported that patients had 4 or more visits within 4 months after surgery, 97% of ophthalmologists performed the first postoperative examination on their cataract surgery patients, and 60% of ophthalmologists reported that no other eye professional saw their patients postoperatively. Forty-six percent of responding optometrists participated in postoperative care of cataract surgery patients, and usually performed their first postoperative examination 7 days after surgery; 78% of these optometrists reported that they saw patients 3 or more times after surgery. Postoperatively, 83% of ophthalmologists and 75% of optometrists usually performed at least 1 dilated fundus examination, 87% of ophthalmologists and 47% of optometrists performed 4 or more slit-lamp examinations, 74% of ophthalmologists and 42% of optometrists performed 4 or more tonometry tests, and 83% of both groups performed 2 or more refractions. More than 80% of responding optometrists involved in postoperative care of cataract surgery patients immediately refer a patient to an ophthalmologist if there is evidence of acute glaucoma or an unexplained decrease in vision in the eye that was operated on. For less urgent complications, most optometrists promptly make a referral to an ophthalmologist., Conclusions: In 1992, a small percentage of ophthalmologists and optometrists were performing fewer follow-up examinations and tests for cataract patients than recommended by the American Academy of Ophthalmology. Not all optometrists immediately refer to an ophthalmologist any acute complication that they identify postoperatively.

Background: Many hysterectomies are now performed by a laparoscopically assisted vaginal technique. This procedure is controversial, partly because of concern about cost. We studied hospital charges and costs for the procedure as compared with those for total abdominal hysterectomy and total vaginal hysterectomy in clinically similar groups of patients., Methods: From hospital-discharge data and patients' charts, we identified hysterectomies performed in 1993 and 1994 by 96 surgeons at a community teaching hospital to treat benign conditions. The patients were grouped according to the surgical procedures performed in conjunction with the hysterectomy. Data on hospital charges and cost-to-charge ratios for 64 hospital cost centers were used to assess charges and costs for specific resources, as well as for the hospitalization overall., Results: Of 1049 patients studied, 26 percent underwent laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy, 54 percent underwent abdominal hysterectomy, and 20 percent underwent vaginal hysterectomy. The average hospital stays were 2.6, 3.9, and 2.9 days, respectively, and the mean total charges (facility charges plus professional fees) for the hospitalizations were $6,116, $5,084, and $4,221 (P<0.001 for the comparison of the laparoscopic technique with both other techniques). The mean facility costs were $4,914, $3,954, and $3,116, respectively (P<0.001 for the same comparison), with similar findings in all subgroups. The higher charges and costs for laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy were due to higher supply costs, particularly when disposable supplies were used, and to longer operating-room time., Conclusions: Despite shorter hospital stays, in-hospital charges and costs for laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy are higher than for either alternative procedure, because of the disposable supplies that are typically used and the longer operating-room time.

As the number and cost of new technologies grow, it is increasingly important that we develop sound policies for payment for those technologies while their clinical impacts are being defined. Such policies need to balance social interests in promotion of innovation, early access to promising technology, patient safety, control of health care costs, and return on investment. We present a rationale, policy options, and a proposal for insurance coverage of experimental technology.

Objectives: To assess the test-retest reliability and responsiveness of the VF-14, which is an index of functional impairment in patient with cataracts., Design: Observational longitudinal study. Patients were enrolled prior to undergoing their first cataract surgery between July 15 and December 15, 1991, and they were followed up for 1 year after surgery., Setting: Patients were recruited from 72 ophthalmologists' practices in three US cities., Patients: Five hundred fifty-two patients who had undergone a surgical procedure in only one eye by the 4-month postoperative follow-up (responsiveness analyses) and a subset of these (n = 426) who had not subsequently undergone surgery for the second eye by the 12-month postoperative follow-up (reproducibility analyses)., Main Outcome Measures: Two health status measures (the VF-14 and the Sickness Impact Profile, two global measures of a patient's trouble and satisfaction with his or her vision, and best corrected visual acuity in each eye., Results: The VF-14 is highly reproducible, with an intraclass correlation coefficient of .79 when patient-rated criteria are used to define stable patients. The intraclass correlation coefficient was lower (.57 to .71) when various measures of visual acuity were used to define stable patients. The VF-14 is also about three times more responsive to a change in vision than the Sickness Impact Profile, which is a generic health status measure (effect size of approximately 1.00 vs 0.30). Estimates of the responsiveness of the VF-14 and the Sickness Impact Profile were not associated with preoperative visual acuity in the operated on or better eye. Responsiveness of the VF-14, however, was higher in patients with greater self-rated trouble with vision preoperatively., Conclusions: The VF-14 was reproducible in stable patients during an 8-month period, and it was more responsive to clinically significant changes in vision than was a generic health status measure (ie, the Sickness Impact Profile).

Purpose: To measure the relative effect of cataract surgery in the second eye compared with the first eye on functional impairment, satisfaction, and vision problems., Methods: Seventy-five randomly selected ophthalmologists in three cities in the United States were enrolled in a National Study of Cataract Outcomes. They, in turn, referred eligible, sequential patients scheduled for first-eye cataract surgery. Interviews were conducted at enrollment, 4 months after first-eye surgery, and 12 months after first-eye surgery. An attempt was made to conduct a special, preoperative interview of those patients scheduled to undergo second-eye surgery before the 4-month interview. Each interview included administration of the VF-14 (a 14-item questionnaire that assessed visual function), as well as questions about symptoms possibly related to cataract, "trouble with vision," and satisfaction with vision., Results: Seven hundred seventy-two patients were enrolled in the study, and interview data to 12 months were obtained from 669 (86%) patients. Of these patients, 243 (36%) underwent cataract extraction in the second eye during the 12-month period of observation. Overall, subjects who underwent cataract surgery in both eyes during the 12-month period had 61% greater improvement in VF-14 score (P < 0.001), 27% more decline in trouble with vision (P < 0.001), and 24% greater improvement in satisfaction with vision (P < 0.001) compared with those who underwent surgery in only one eye., Conclusions: Cataract surgery in the second eye of patients with bilateral cataract is associated with clinical and statistically significant improvement in functional impairment, trouble with vision, and satisfaction with vision.

Objectives: Our purpose was to compare the indications, characteristics, surgical management, and outcomes of patients undergoing total abdominal hysterectomy, total vaginal hysterectomy, and laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy and to assess whether patients who underwent abdominal hysterectomy might have been candidates for laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy and whether patients who underwent total abdominal hysterectomy or laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy might have been candidates for total vaginal hysterectomy., Study Design: The hospital charts of 502 women who underwent elective inpatient hysterectomy at a single large general hospital between January 1992 and November 1993 were abstracted retrospectively by use of a structured data abstraction instrument. The study included patients operated on by 16 different experienced gynecologists. Data were collected regarding patient demographic characteristics, clinical history and preoperative physical examination, indications for surgery, route of hysterectomy, intraoperative findings, pathologic study results, and outcomes in the immediate postoperative hospitalization period., Results: Patient age, race, weight, parity, and previous surgical history were significantly associated with hysterectomy type. Although no nulliparous patients and no patients with a uterine size estimated preoperatively to be > 12 weeks of gestation underwent total vaginal hysterectomy, 16.6% and 30.6% of laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy patients had these characteristics, respectively. A total of 6.6% of total abdominal hysterectomy cases and 16.7% of laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy cases lacked an obvious justification for an abdominal procedure. On average, surgical time was 23 minutes longer for laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy than for total abdominal hysterectomy and 30 minutes longer for total abdominal hysterectomy than for total vaginal hysterectomy. When uterine size or configuration impaired access to uterine vessels, laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy was difficult to perform. Postoperative morbidity was similar across the three procedures, but average length of hospital stay was 2.8 days, 3.5 days, and 4.4 days for laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy, total vaginal hysterectomy, and total abdominal hysterectomy, respectively., Conclusions: Although there are some consistent and statistically significant differences in the characteristics of patients undergoing total abdominal hysterectomy versus laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy versus total vaginal hysterectomy, laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy is enabling many patients to avoid total abdominal hysterectomy. However, many patients undergoing total abdominal hysterectomy and laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy could probably undergo total vaginal hysterectomy instead. Clinical outcomes were similar regardless of type of hysterectomy performed. Practice style and personal preference of the surgeon thus may be playing a significant role in selection of hysterectomy type. Laparoscopically assisted vaginal hysterectomy becomes technically difficult and conversion to total abdominal hysterectomy is more frequent when uterine size or configuration impairs access to uterine vessels.

Objective: To describe the relationship between patients' preoperative expectations regarding the outcome of cataract surgery and actual postoperative experience., Methods: A longitudinal study of 772 patients undergoing first eye cataract surgery recruited from 75 ophthalmology practices in three metropolitan areas was conducted. Prior to surgery and approximately 4 months after surgery, a detailed interview was conducted that included general and vision-specific health status measures (including the Visual Function 12-Item Scale [VF-12]), patient-reported level of trouble and satisfaction with vision, and questions addressing patients' preoperative expectations regarding the outcomes of surgery. In addition, detailed clinical data were collected preoperatively and postoperatively. A total of 552 patients had only single eye cataract surgery by 4 months postoperatively and are included in this analysis., Results: Patients' preoperative expectations regarding the impact of cataract surgery were very high and were unrelated to their demographic or ocular characteristics. The preoperative VF-12 score, however, was positively correlated with expected postoperative VF-12 score (Spearman correlation, .45, P < .001). Only 61% of patients achieved or surpassed their expected level of postoperative functioning. The difference between expected and actual postoperative VF-12 scores was not associated with patients' demographic characteristics or provider-related variables. Older patients (> 75 years) and patients with ocular comorbidity had a larger difference between expected and actual postoperative functioning than younger patients and those without ocular comorbidity., Conclusion: Expectations regarding visual functioning after cataract surgery are very high, and in most cases such expectations are fulfilled. In selected cases, more comprehensive counseling may reduce the discrepancy between expectations and actual outcomes of cataract surgery.

To assess variation in reported use of preoperative medical tests in patients undergoing cataract surgery and to identify factors that influence test use by different physician groups we performed a national survey of ophthalmologists, anesthesiologists, and internists. Participants included randomly selected members of American professional societies who provided care to one or more patients undergoing cataract surgery in 1991. Responses were obtained from 538 (82%) of 655 eligible ophthalmologists, 109 (76%) of 143 anesthesiologists, and 54 (44%) of 122 internists. Fifty percent of ophthalmologists, 40% of internists, and 33% of anesthesiologists frequently or always obtained a chest x-ray film, while 20% of ophthalmologists, 27% of internists, and 37% of anesthesiologists never obtained a chest x-ray film for patients being considered for cataract surgery who had no history of major medical problems (P < .01 for differences between ophthalmologists and the other groups). Similarly, 70% to 90% of ophthalmologists, 73% to 79% of internists, and 41% to 79% of anesthesiologists frequently or always obtained a complete blood cell count, electrolyte panel, and electrocardiogram, while 4% to 11% of ophthalmologists, 13% to 17% of internists, and 9% to 28% of anesthesiologists never obtained these tests for such patients. Many respondents (32% to 80%) believed tests were unnecessary but cited multiple reasons for obtaining tests (eg, medicolegal concerns and institutional requirements). Many physicians in each group viewed preoperative evaluations as screening opportunities or believed that one of the other two types of physicians "required" tests. We conclude that marked variation exists within and across physician specialties in the use and rationale for use of medical tests in patients undergoing cataract surgery.

To characterize the intraoperative procedures employed by cataract surgeons in the United States and the beliefs underlying the practices, a standardized questionnaire was sent to a systematic random sample of members of the American Academy of Ophthalmology in 1992. Of 667 surveyed ophthalmologists, 550 completed the questionnaire (response rate, 82.5%). Phacoemulsification was used for more than 75% of routine cataract surgery by 46% of respondents, whereas standard extracapsular surgery was used for more than 75% of routine cataract surgery by 41% of respondents. Preferential use of phacoemulsification was independently associated with more recent graduation from medical school and higher reported annual surgical volume. Continuous tear capsulotomy was employed by 52% of ophthalmologists. Preference for this technique was independently associated with both the use of phacoemulsification and higher annual surgical volume. Seventy-one percent of respondents used retrobulbar anesthesia, whereas 28% used peribulbar anesthesia. Use of peribulbar anesthesia was independently associated with both greater surgical volume and performance of surgery in an ambulatory surgical center. Beliefs regarding comparative safety and effectiveness were reported to influence surgeons' preferences strongly among all of the competing techniques studied. Those performing phacoemulsification, in comparison with those performing extracapsular cataract extraction, reported that the expectation of reduced astigmatism and shorter recovery time strongly influenced their choice of procedure. Variation in preferred intraoperative techniques is substantial for cataract surgery and the beliefs that underlie the preferences. Such variation highlights the need to determine which techniques maximize patient outcomes and are most cost-effective.

Purpose: To identify preoperative patient characteristics associated with a lack of improvement on one or more measures 4 months after cataract surgery., Methods: The authors collected preoperative and 4-month postoperative information on 552 patients undergoing first-eye cataract surgery from the practices of 72 ophthalmologists in three cities. The principal outcomes assessed were (1) Snellen visual acuity, (2) a cataract-related symptom score (possible range: 0, 0 of 6 symptoms present or bothersome, to 18, all 6 symptoms very bothersome), and (3) a measure of functional impairment in patients with cataract--the VF-14 score (possible range: 0, inability to perform any of the applicable activities, to 100, no difficulty performing any of the applicable activities). Multiple logistic regression was used to assess the association between preoperative patient characteristics and failure to improve on one or more outcome measures. Multiple linear regression was used to estimate the adjusted rate of lack of improvement in one or more outcome measures for one group of patients compared with another., Results: Although 91 patients (16.5%) failed to improve on one or more of the outcome measures assessed, only 2 (0.4%) failed to improve on all three measures. The 91 patients who did not improve on at least one measure were approximately one sixth as likely to be satisfied with their vision postoperatively as the 461 patients who improved on all three outcome measures. Preoperative age of 75 years of age or older, VF-14 score of 90 or higher, cataract symptom score of 3 or lower, and ocular comorbidity (glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, or age-related macular degeneration) were associated independently with increased likelihood of not improving on one or more measure (odds ratio: 3.57, 2.10, 3.29, and 2.16, respectively). The mean adjusted rate of failure to improve on at least one of the outcome measures ranged from 20.5% to 26.5% for patients with these preoperative characteristics compared with 8.8% to 13.8% for those patients without them. The preoperative level of Snellen visual acuity was not associated with the likelihood of not improving on one or more of the outcomes assessed., Conclusions: The authors conclude that specific preoperative characteristics (age, comorbidity, cataract symptom score, and VF-14 score) are independent predictors of patient outcome after cataract surgery.

The increased demand for health status measures in evaluating medical interventions has increased the importance of clarifying when to use generic versus disease-specific health status measures. The authors compared the performance of a well known generic health status measure, the Sickness Impact Profile (SIP), and a disease-specific measure of functional impairment related to vision (the VF-14) in detecting functional impairment in 426 cataract patients before and at 12 months after first eye cataract surgery. Using analysis of covariance models, the associations were assessed between the SIP and VF-14 and four criterion variables--patient ratings of trouble and satisfaction with their vision and overall health, and best corrected visual acuity--after controlling for patient age and medical comorbidities. Preoperative patient ratings of trouble and satisfaction with vision were significantly associated with VF-14 scores (P < 0.001), but not with SIP scores. Preoperative visual acuity in the better eye was significantly associated with both VF-14 and SIP scores (P < 0.001). Patient general health ratings were significantly associated with SIP scores (P < 0.001), but not with VF-14 scores. Postoperative changes in patient ratings of their vision and in visual acuity were significantly associated with changes in VF-14 scores (P < 0.05), but not with changes in SIP scores. Changes in patient ratings of overall health were significantly associated with changes in SIP scores (P < 0.01), but not with changes in VF-14 scores. In patients undergoing cataract surgery, a disease-specific health status measure is more sensitive to preoperative functional impairment related to vision, and to change in functional impairment after cataract surgery, than is a generic health status measure.

Cataract surgery is the most frequently performed surgical procedure on Medicare beneficiaries, with an annual cost to the Medicare program of more than $3.4 billion. In this study, the relationship between demographic, environmental, and provider-related factors, and the likelihood that cataract surgery will be performed on a Medicare beneficiary were assessed. The association between likelihood of cataract surgery and patient age, sex, race, income, and latitude of residence was examined, as was the association with the supply of ophthalmologists and optometrists in each region, and the allowed charge for cataract surgery and cost of practice in a region. This cross-sectional, population-based study used administrative data. Both regional models, using least-squares regression and person-based models, using logistic regression were employed. A random 5% sample of 1986 and 1987 Medicare beneficiaries, 65 years of age and older, were included in the study. Medicare beneficiaries who lacked continuous Part A and Part B coverage during 1986 and 1987, or who were enrolled in a health maintenance organization at any time during this 2-year period of observation were excluded from the study to make certain that complete utilization data were available for each individual. Rate of cataract surgery per 1,000 Medicare beneficiaries in each Bureau of Economic Analysis Economic Area (BEAEA) and the likelihood of an individual with particular characteristics undergoing cataract surgery were determined in separate regression models. The mean annual rate of cataract surgery during 1986 and 1987 in the 181 BEAEAs was 25.4 surgeries per 1,000 persons 65 years of age or older (standard deviation = 6.2, coefficient of variation = 0.24). Both the regional model and the person-based model detected an association between a higher rate of and personal likelihood of cataract surgery and female gender, more southerly latitude, higher concentration of optometrists per 1,000 Medicare beneficiaries, and higher allowed charge for cataract surgery, after adjusting for variation in practice expense. The person-based model additionally demonstrated that increased likelihood of undergoing cataract surgery was associated with increasing age from 65 to 94 years, white race, and living in a zip-code area with mean income greater than $15,000. Neither analysis detected a statistically significant association between the concentration of ophthalmologists per 1,000 Medicare beneficiaries and the regional rate of, or an individual's likelihood of, cataract surgery. Compared with the geographic variation in provision of other surgical procedures, the variation in cataract surgery across large geographic areas observed in this analysis was relatively low.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Objective: To assess variation in optometrists' use of ophthalmic tests in the evaluation of patients being considered for cataract surgery who have no history of other eye disease., Design/participants: National survey of a systematic sample of practicing members of the American Optometric Association (St Louis, Mo), who had referred at least one patient to an ophthalmologist for consideration of cataract surgery in 1991., Results: Ninety-two of 130 eligible responding optometrists reported that they routinely performed preoperative testing on patients being considered for cataract surgery. Of these 92 optometrists, 91 (99%) frequently or always performed refraction, and 82 (89%) frequently or always performed a dilated fundus examination in their evaluation of patients being considered for cataract surgery who had no history of other eye disease. None of these 92 optometrists reported using B-scan ultrasonography or electroretinograms frequently or always, and few used A-scan ultrasonography or visual evoked responses frequently or always. A substantial percentage frequently or always used formal visual field testing (47%), formal color vision testing (40%), fundus photography (24%), potential acuity measurement (25%), glare testing (23%), contrast sensitivity testing (19%), and specular microscopy (14%), while 11% to 81% of optometrists never performed these tests on such patients. More recent graduation from optometry school was associated with a decreased frequency of use of potential acuity measurement and contrast sensitivity testing and with an increased use of dilated fundus examinations., Conclusion: There is a substantial variation in optometrists self-reported use of a number of ophthalmic tests in the preoperative evaluation of patients being considered for cataract surgery who have no history of other eye disease.

To estimate patient preferences for gallstone-related treatments and outcomes, and assess how preferences vary by patient characteristics and scaling technique, the authors randomly assigned 40 patients without gallstones to interviews based on a rating scale (n = 22) and a standard gamble (n = 18). The patients assigned preference values (possible values 0 to 1) to open cholecystectomy (mean 0.45 by rating scale, 0.78 by standard gamble), laparoscopic cholecystectomy (0.71, 0.91), extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy (0.77, 0.89), acute cholecystitis (0.36, 0.77), lifetime biliary colic (0.41, 0.71), postcholecystectomy syndrome (0.43, 0.79), asymptomatic stone necessitating treatment with bile acids (0.76, 0.96), and surgical scar (0.79, 0.998). Preferences varied little by age, gender, or race. Standard gamble values were highly correlated with, but significantly greater than, rating scale values. The authors conclude that patients' preferences for gallstone-related conditions generally are significantly less than one, and differ markedly by the scaling technique used to derive them. These results should be considered when patient preferences are incorporated into analyses of gallstone treatments.

This report outlines the activities undertaken by the Inter-PORT Dissemination work group during its first 2 years of operation. The work group's initial purpose was to assist the individual PORTs in developing their plans for both disseminating research findings and evaluating the effectiveness of these strategies. However, it became quickly apparent that in a discipline little more than a decade old, a commonly understood vocabulary had yet to be adopted. Even the term "dissemination" held different meaning for different constituencies. Consequently, the work group has tried to encourage the development of both a definitional framework and a set of common data elements of importance to all dissemination programs. The work group has analogously attempted to agree on minimum standards of methodologic rigor as a starting point for coordination of evaluations across PORTs. To help determine the potential for further coordination, a matrix of each individual PORT's target audiences, intervention strategies, and evaluation designs has been constructed. Much remains to be learned before we can know with any certainty how best to translate research findings into useful behavior change and improved patient outcomes. Our goal is that the efforts of the work group will serve to catalyze this process.

Little information is available either for the clinical value of many ophthalmic tests performed preoperatively in the evaluation of patients for cataract surgery or for variation in ophthalmologists' use of such tests. To assess variation in ophthalmologists' use of ophthalmic tests, we conducted a national survey of American Academy of Ophthalmology members. Thirty-three percent, 17%, 37%, and 19% of the respondents reported that they "frequently" or "always" perform glare testing, contrast sensitivity testing, potential acuity measurement, and specular microscopy, respectively, in patients being considered for cataract surgery who have no history of eye disease other than cataract. In contrast, 27%, 54%, 24%, and 48% of respondents reported that they never perform each of these four tests in such patients. Two ophthalmologist characteristics--a surgical volume of greater than 200 cataract extractions per year and performance of surgery in an ambulatory surgical center or private office (as opposed to a hospital)--were independently associated with an increased probability of performing each of these four tests frequently or always. Ten percent or less of the respondents reported that they frequently or always perform electroretinography, visual evoked response testing, photography of fundus or anterior segment, B-scan ultrasonography, formal color vision testing, and formal visual field testing in such patients. Thus, there is considerable variation in ophthalmologists' use of glare testing, contrast sensitivity testing, potential acuity measurement, and specular microscopy. A small percentage of ophthalmologists may be overusing several other tests in the evaluation of patients being considered for cataract surgery.

Objective: To assess internists' familiarity with, confidence in, and attitudes about practice guidelines issued by various organizations., Design: Cross-sectional, self-administered survey., Participants: Questionnaires were mailed to a stratified random sample of 2600 members of the American College of Physicians (ACP) in 1992. Of the 2513 internists who met our eligibility criteria, 1513 responded (60%)., Measurements and Results: Familiarity with guidelines varied from 11% of responders for the ACP guideline on exercise treadmill testing to 59% of responders for the National Cholesterol Education Program guideline. Confidence was reported in ACP guidelines by 82% of responders but by only 6% for Blue Cross and Blue Shield guidelines. Subspecialists had greatest confidence in guidelines developed by their own subspecialty organizations. It was thought that guidelines would improve the quality of health care by 70% of responders, increase health care costs by 43%, be used to discipline physicians by 68%, and make practice less satisfying by 34%. More favorable attitudes were held by internists who were paid a fixed salary, saw patients for less than 20 hours per week, had recently graduated from medical school, or were not in private practice., Conclusions: Although most ACP members studied recognized the potential benefits of practice guidelines, many were concerned about possible effects on clinical autonomy, health care costs, and satisfaction with clinical practice.

Purpose: To examine associations between surgical technique, patient and surgeon characteristics, and clinical outcomes of cataract surgery., Methods: Seventy-five ophthalmologists were recruited from three cities based on a sampling scheme stratified by surgeon-reported annual volume of cataract surgery. Seven hundred seventy-two patients undergoing first eye cataract surgery were enrolled, with complete preoperative, perioperative, and 4-month postoperative clinical data on 717 patients (93%)., Results: Sixty-five percent of surgery was performed by phacoemulsification and 35% by standard extracapsular (ECCE) techniques. Performance of ECCE was associated with the presence of ocular comorbidity and 21 or more years in practice of the surgeon. Performance of phacoemulsification was associated with annual volume of cataract surgery, wherein high-volume (201-399 patients annually) and very high-volume (> 400 patients annually) surgeons had 3.7 and 3.9 times the likelihood of performing phacoemulsification compared with moderate-volume (51-200 cases annually) surgeons. The rates of intraoperative, perioperative, and 4-month postoperative adverse events and the amount of improvement in visual acuity did not differ either by surgical technique or volume stratum. The reported occurrence of posterior capsular opacification within 4 months of surgery was increased in the presence of cortical opacification, one city, and patients operated on by either high- or very high-volume surgeons., Conclusions: In this cohort, no difference in clinical outcomes, as measured by change in visual acuity or occurrence of postoperative adverse events (except for posterior capsular opacification), can be attributed to performance of phacoemulsification versus ECCE or to the reported annual volume of cataract surgery of the surgeon. Self-reported high and very high annual volume of cataract surgery is associated independently with performance of phacoemulsification and surgeon's report of posterior capsular opacification at 4 months after cataract surgery.

Background: Although ophthalmologists have long recognized that visual acuity alone is an inadequate measure of visual impairment, the need for and outcomes of cataract surgery historically have been assessed in terms of visual acuity., Purpose: To examine the relation among different cataract surgery outcome measures, including a 14-item instrument designed to measure functional impairment caused by cataract (the VF-14), at 4 months after cataract surgery., Methods: The authors performed a longitudinal study of 552 patients undergoing first eye cataract surgery by 1 of 75 ophthalmologists practicing in Columbus, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri, or Houston, Texas. Patients were interviewed, and clinical data were obtained preoperatively (July 15, 1991-March 14, 1992) and 4 months postoperatively., Results: The percentage of patients judged to be improved at 4 months after cataract surgery varied by the outcome measure used: Snellen visual acuity (96%); VF-14 score (89%); satisfaction with vision (85%); self-reported trouble with vision (80%); and Sickness Impact Profile score (67%). The change in patients' ratings of their trouble with vision and their satisfaction with vision were correlated more strongly with the change in VF-14 score than with the change in visual acuity (operated eye or better eye). The average change in VF-14 score was unrelated to the preoperative visual acuity in the eye undergoing surgery., Conclusion: Estimates of the proportion of patients benefiting from cataract surgery vary with the outcome measure used to measure benefit. Change in VF-14 score, a measure of functional impairment related to vision, may be a better measure of the benefit of cataract surgery than change in visual acuity.

Objective: To describe the development and the performance of a brief questionnaire designed to measure functional impairment caused by cataract (the VF-14)., Design: Observational cross-sectional study. Patients were recruited between July 15 and December 15, 1991., Setting: Patients were recruited from the practices of 70 ophthalmologists, located in Columbus, Ohio (N = 21), St Louis, Mo (N = 26), and Houston, Tex (N = 23)., Patients: Seven hundred sixty-six patients undergoing cataract surgery for the first time., Main Outcome Measures: Preoperative best corrected visual acuity in each eye; scores on the VF-14, a new index of functional impairment in patients with cataract; patient reports of overall trouble and satisfaction with their vision; and scores on the Sickness Impact Profile, a measure of general health status., Results: The VF-14 has high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = .85) and correlates more strongly with the overall self-rating of the amount of trouble and satisfaction patients have with their vision than do several measures of visual acuity or the Sickness Impact Profile score. The VF-14 score is moderately correlated with visual acuity in the better eye., Conclusions: The VF-14 is a reliable and valid measure of functional impairment caused by cataract and provides information not conveyed by visual acuity or a general measure of health status.

Background: Since 1989, laparoscopic cholecystectomy has been widely adopted as a treatment for gallstone disease. We analyzed the association between the introduction of this procedure and three variables: the rate at which cholecystectomy was performed in Maryland, the characteristics of patients undergoing cholecystectomy in routine clinical practice, and operative mortality., Methods and Results: We used 1985-1992 hospital-discharge data from all 54 acute care hospitals in Maryland, to identify open and laparoscopic cholecystectomies, characteristics of patients undergoing these procedures, and deaths occurring during hospitalizations in which these procedures were performed. The annual rate of cholecystectomy, adjusted for age, rose from 1.69 per 1000 state residents in 1987-1989 to 2.17 per 1000 residents in 1992, an increase of 28 percent (P < 0.001). As compared with patients undergoing open cholecystectomy, patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy tended to be younger, less likely to have acute cholecystitis or a common-duct stone, and more likely to be white and have private health insurance or belong to a health maintenance organization (P < 0.001). Although the operative mortality associated with laparoscopic cholecystectomy was less than that with open cholecystectomy (adjusted odds ratio, 0.22; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.13 to 0.37) and the overall mortality rate for all cholecystectomies declined from 0.84 percent in 1989 to 0.56 percent in 1992, there was no significant change in the total number of cholecystectomy-related operative deaths because of the increase in the cholecystectomy rate., Conclusions: In Maryland, although the adoption of laparoscopic cholecystectomy has been accompanied by a 33 percent decrease in overall operative mortality per procedure, the total number of cholecystectomy-related deaths has not fallen because of a 28 percent increase in the total rate of cholecystectomy.

Objective: To better define the effectiveness and risks of modern cataract surgery., Design: Meta-analysis (formal systematic identification, selection, review, and synthesis) of published literature., Patients: Patients described in 90 studies published between 1979 and 1991 that addressed visual acuity (n = 17,390 eyes) or complications (n = 68,316 eyes) following standard extracapsular cataract extraction with posterior chamber intraocular lens implantation, phaco-emulsification with posterior chamber intraocular lens implantation, or intracapsular cataract extraction with flexible anterior chamber intraocular lens implantation., Main Outcome Measures: The proportion of eyes with postoperative Snellen visual acuity of 20/40 or better and the proportion of eyes with each of 18 complications., Results: The pooled percentage of eyes (weighted by sample size) with postoperative visual acuity of 20/40 or better was 95.5% (95% confidence interval [CI], 95.1% to 95.9%) among eyes without preexisting ocular comorbidity and 89.7% (95% CI, 89.3% to 90.2%) for all eyes. The pooled percentage of eyes experiencing complications (weighted by sample size and, when pertinent, by quality score of the individual studies but not adjusted for variation in duration of follow-up) ranged from 0.13% for endophthalmitis to 19.7% for posterior capsule opacification. Pooled proportions of eyes with other complications were as follows: bullous keratopathy, 0.3%; intraocular lens malposition/dislocation, 1.1%; clinically apparent cystoid macular edema, 1.5%; and retinal detachment, 0.7%. Pooled results for postoperative Snellen visual acuity and most complications were similar for surgery performed via phacoemulsification vs standard extracapsular cataract extraction, although comparisons of the outcomes between these procedures should be interpreted with caution., Conclusions: The published literature indicates that modern cataract surgery yields excellent visual acuity and, although not free of complications, is a very safe procedure regardless of the extraction technique used.