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Contextual data collected concurrently with molecular samples are critical to the use of metagenomics in the fields of marine biodiversity, bioinformatics and biotechnology. We present here Marine Microbial Biodiversity, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology (M2B3) standards for "Reporting" and "Serving" data. The M2B3 Reporting Standard (1) describes minimal mandatory and recommended contextual information for a marine microbial sample obtained in the epipelagic zone, (2) includes meaningful information for researchers in the oceanographic, biodiversity and molecular disciplines, and (3) can easily be adopted by any marine laboratory with minimum sampling resources. The M2B3 Service Standard defines a software interface through which these data can be discovered and explored in data repositories. The M2B3 Standards were developed by the European project Micro B3, funded under 7(th) Framework Programme "Ocean of Tomorrow", and were first used with the Ocean Sampling Day initiative. We believe that these standards have value in broader marine science.

C57BL/6, BALB/c, and CBA/Ca mouse strains with different MHC-I haplotypes were compared with respect to susceptibility to Neospora caninum infection. Groups of 5 mice received 1 × 10(6), 5 × 10(6), or 25 × 10(6) tachyzoites of the NC-Liverpool isolate by intraperitoneal injection and were observed for disease symptoms. Humoral responses, splenocyte interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production, cerebral parasite loads, and histopathology were evaluated at human end points or the latest at 34 days postinfection (PI). The mortality rates in C57BL/6 mice were the highest, and relatively high levels of IgG1 antibodies were detected in those mice surviving till 34 days PI. In lymphocyte proliferation assays, spleen cells from C57BL6 mice stimulated with N. caninum antigen extract exhibited large variations in IFN-γ production. In BALB/c mice mortality was 0% at the lowest and 100% at the highest infection dose. Serologically they responded with high levels of both IgG2a and IgG1 subclasses, and lymphocyte proliferation assays of surviving mice yielded lower IFN-γ levels. CBA/Ca mice were the most resistant, with no animal succumbing to infection at a dose of 1 × 10(6) and 5 × 10(6) tachyzoites, but 100% mortality at 25 × 10(6) tachyzoites. High IgG2a levels as well as increased IFN-γ in lymphocyte proliferation assays were measured in CBA/Ca mice infected with 1 × 10(6) tachyzoites.

Trypanosomatid parasites are notorious for the human diseases they cause throughout Africa and South America. However, non-pathogenic trypanosomatids are also found worldwide, infecting a wide range of hosts. One example is Trypanosoma (Megatrypanum) theileri, a ubiquitous protozoan commensal of bovids, which is distributed globally. Exploiting knowledge of pathogenic trypanosomatids, we have developed Trypanosoma theileri as a novel vehicle to deliver vaccine antigens and other proteins to cattle. Conditions for the growth and transfection of T. theileri have been optimised and expressed heterologous proteins targeted for secretion or specific localisation at the cell interior or surface using trafficking signals from Trypanosoma brucei. In cattle, the engineered vehicle could establish in the context of a pre-existing natural T. theileri population, was maintained long-term and generated specific immune responses to an expressed Babesia antigen at protective levels. Building on several decades of basic research into trypanosomatid pathogens, Trypanosoma theileri offers significant potential to target multiple infections, including major cattle-borne zoonoses such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Brucella abortus and Mycobacterium spp. It also has the potential to deliver therapeutics to cattle, including the lytic factor that protects humans from cattle trypanosomiasis. This could alleviate poverty by protecting indigenous African cattle from African trypanosomiasis.

The phylum Apicomplexa consists of obligate intracellular protistan parasites, some of which are responsible for global disease causing serious morbidity and mortality in humans and animals. Understanding the mechanisms of gene expression that drive the cellular changes required to complete their life cycles will be critical in combating infection and disease. Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii have served as good models for growth and development in the Apicomplexa. Elucidating developmental gene expression relies on comparisons with known mechanisms and their DNA, RNA and protein components. Transcriptional profiling across asexual development suggests a model where a cascade of gene expression results in a "just-in-time" production process that makes products only when needed. Some mechanisms that control transcription such as chromatin/histone modification are highly conserved in the phylum compared with the traditional model organisms, yeast, worms, flies and mammals. Studies exploiting this phenomenon show great potential for both investigating the effects of chromatin structure on developmental gene expression, and helping to identify genes that are expressed in a stage-specific manner. Transcription factors and their cognate cis-acting binding sites have been difficult to identify. This may be because the DNA binding motifs that have evolved to act as transcription factors in the Apicomplexa, e.g. the AP2 family, may be more like plants than the traditional model organisms. A new eukaryotic phylogenetic model comprised of six super-groups divides the traditional model organisms, plants and the Apicomplexa into separate super-groups. This phylogenetic model helps explain why basic functions such as transcriptional regulation appear be a composite of mechanisms in the Apicomplexa compared with what is known from other eukaryotes.

Fusion of yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) to the N-terminus of the Escherichia coli Tn10 tet repressor (TetR) created a functional YFP-TetR repressor with the capacity of 88-fold repression of transcription when expressed in Toxoplasma gondii. As a test promoter we used the T. gondii ribosomal protein RPS13 promoter for which we provide experimental evidence of having a single major transcriptional start site, a condition favourable to the design of inducible expression systems. Integration of four tet operator (tetO) elements, 23-43 bp upstream of the RPS13 transcriptional start site, resulted in maximal repression of transcription (88-fold). Moreover, integration of these four tetO elements reduced the promoter activity only 20% in comparison with the wildtype promoter. Regulation was six-fold higher compared with an inducible expression system employing wildtype TetR. Importantly, only 0.1 microg/ml tetracycline was required for maximal induction demonstrating a higher affinity of tetracycline for YFP-TetR than for wildtype TetR which required 1 microg/ml tetracycline for maximal induction. The use of 0.1 microg/ml tetracycline allows prolonged continuous culturing of T. gondii for which levels of 1 microg/ml tetracycline are toxic. Our results show that YFP-TetR is superior to TetR for transcriptional regulation in T. gondii and we expect that its improved characteristics will be exploitable in other parasites or higher eukaryotes.

Two novel baculovirus-derived recombinant Theileria parva p67 constructs were tested for their vaccine potential against East Coast fever. Boran calves were immunized with a his-GFP-p67 fusion protein (GFP:p67deltaSS) or with GP64:p67C, a protein fusion between a C-terminal domain of p67 and the baculovirus envelope protein GP64. Both GFP:p67deltaSS and GP64:p67C induced antibodies with high ELISA titers that neutralized T. parva sporozoites with high efficiency. Upon challenge, a correlation was observed between the in vitro neutralizing capacity and the reduction in severe ECF for individual animals. A protection level upto 85% was obtained. This level of protection was achieved with only two inoculations of 100 microg per dose, which is a major improvement over previous recombinant p67 products.

Protozoan parasites go through various developmental stages during their parasitic life, which requires the expression of different genes. To identify stage specific gene products in Eimeria tenella, a differential screening was performed comparing the intracellular schizont stage with the extracellular oocyst stage. De novo transcripts of 18S-5.8S-26S rRNA transcription units and of two ribosomal proteins (RPL5 and RPL23) were specifically identified in schizonts and were undetectable in oocysts. The stage specific transcription of pre-rRNAs (prior to processing) was confirmed with Northern blot analysis. Since the E. tenella genome contains a repeated gene cluster with an estimated 140 large rRNA transcription units, they all might be similarly regulated. Specific expression of RPL5 and RPL23 in E. tenella schizonts was also confirmed by Northern blotting. Furthermore, an analysis of the E. tenella EST database with 26,705 ESTs showed that 9.5% of all merozoite ESTs and only 0.2% of the sporozoite ESTs encoded ribosomal proteins (RPs). These ESTs encoded 69 different RPs, suggesting that most and possibly all RPs are differentially transcribed in E. tenella. Analysis of EST data from other Coccidia, such as Toxoplasma gondii, indicated a similar stage dependent transcription of RP genes. We conclude that ribosome biosynthesis is transcriptionally regulated in E. tenella and other Coccidia, such that rapidly growing parasite stages utilize much of their resources to de novo biosynthesis of ribosomes, and that "dormant" oocyst stages do not synthesize new ribosomes. The 50- to 100-fold reduction in transcription of RPs together with the reduced rRNA transcription prevents that unnecessary new ribosomes are synthesized in oocysts.

East Coast fever (ECF) in cattle is caused by the tick-borne protozoan parasite Theileria parva. The major sporozoite surface antigen of T. parva (p67) is an important candidate for inclusion in a subunit vaccine. Recently, we reported the expression and production of different parts of p67 as fusions to either GFP or to the baculovirus GP64 envelope glycoprotein in insect cells, which resulted in stable proteins recognized by a monoclonal specific for native p67. The immunogenicity of these fusion proteins was examined in out-bred mice and cattle. In mice, the full length p67 molecule without its signal peptide and transmembrane region, but fused to GFP (GFP:p67deltaSS) was the best immunogen followed by the C-terminus of p67 fused to GP64 (GP64:p67C). These two immunogens also provoked a high level of sero-conversion in cattle when formulated in a water-in-oil or saponin-derived adjuvant with only 100 microg of protein and a single booster. The vaccine-elicited antibodies efficiently inhibited the infectivity of T. parva sporozoites in in vitro neutralization assays. This study demonstrated that these new baculovirus-derived p67 vaccines were highly immunogenic, and that in combination with a suitable adjuvant, they have a clear potential to induce protective immunity in cattle., (Copyright 2004 Elsevier B.V.)