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Exposure to mycotoxins through food is a major health concern, especially for youngsters. This study performed a preliminary investigation on children's exposure to dietary mycotoxins in Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. Sampling procedures were conducted between August and December 2022, to collect foods (N = 213) available for consumption in the households of children (N = 67), including preschoolers (aged 3-6 years, n = 21), schoolers (aged 7-10 years, n = 15), and adolescents (aged 11-17 years, n = 31) cared in the Vila Lobato Community Social Medical Center of Ribeirão Preto. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was used to determine concentrations of the mycotoxins in foods. Mycotoxins measured in all foods comprised aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA). Higher incidence and levels were found for FBs, ZEN, and DON in several commonly consumed foods. Furthermore, 32.86 % foods had two to four quantifiable mycotoxins in various combinations. The mean estimated daily intake (EDI) values were lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for AFs, FBs, and ZEN, but higher than the TDI (1.0 µg/kg bw/day) for DON, hence indicating a health risk for all children age groups. Preschoolers and adolescents were exposed to DON through wheat products (EDIs: 2.696 ± 7.372 and 1.484 ± 2.395 µg/kg body weight (bw)/day, respectively), while schoolers were exposed through wheat products (EDI: 1.595 ± 1.748 µg/kg bw/day) and rice (EDI: 1.391 ± 1.876 µg/kg bw/day). The results indicate that wheat-based foods and rice may be risky to children, implying the need for stringent measures to avoid DON contamination in these products., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this study was to conduct a first evaluation on the co-occurrence of aflatoxins (AF) M 1 , B 1 , B 2 , G 1 and G 2 ; fumonisins (F) B 1 and B 2 ; deoxynivalenol (DON); de-epoxydeoxinivalenol (DOM-1); ochratoxin A (OTA); zearalenone (ZEN); α-zearalenol (α-ZEL); and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) in 68 samples of fluid milk consumed in Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil. The probable daily intake (PDI) was also calculated for each mycotoxin evaluated. Mycotoxins were determined by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Sixty-two (91.2%) samples contained at least one type of mycotoxin. AFM 1 was found in 6 samples (8.8%), and none of them presented concentrations above the Brazilian maximum permitted level in milk (500 ng/L). Low levels of non-regulated mycotoxins DOM-1, OTA, FB 1 , FB 2 , α-ZEL and β-ZEL were found in 6 (8.8%), 17 (25%), 10 (14.7%), 3 (4.4%), 39 (57.4%) and 28 (41.2%) samples of milk, respectively. None of the PDIs calculated for the quantified mycotoxins were above recommended values, indicating low exposure through milk consumption in the area studied. However, 21 samples (30.9%) contained 2-4 types of mycotoxins, which warrants concern about the potential adverse effects of mycotoxin mixtures in milks.

In the present trial, the levels of serum aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1 )-lysine and their relationship with biochemical parameters in broiler chicks fed an AFB 1 -contaminated diet were determined. The experimental design was completely randomized with two treatments (control and 222.17 µg/kg AFB 1 ) and 20 bird per treatment. Feeds were offered to broiler chicks for 14 days, from 28 to 42 days of age. Animals were vaccinated against Newcastle's and Marek's diseases on the 14th day of life, and were killed at 42 days of age. Broilers receiving AFB 1 did not demonstrate any sign of toxicity. Compared with controls, aspartate aminotransferase and globulin levels were not affected in the AFB 1 -treated group. However, higher levels of gamma-glutamyl transferase and lower concentrations of total protein and albumin were observed in the group receiving AFB 1 on days 35 and 42. AFB 1 -lysine were detected in the serum of all broilers fed the AFB 1 -contaminated diet, at mean levels of 56.52-77.83 ng/mg albumin on days 35 and 42 of age, respectively. These values indicated the internal dose of AFB 1 in birds, which negatively correlated with total protein, albumin, and globulin levels. Data indicated that AFB 1 -lysine shows the potential to be a sensitive and specific biomarker for the evaluation of broiler exposure to dietary aflatoxin, as well as for diagnostic purposes. Further studies are necessary to determine physiologically-based toxicokinetics of serum AFB 1 -lysine in broilers.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of different sources of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SC) biomass (20.0 g/d) obtained from sugarcane (cell wall, CW; dried yeast, DY; autolyzed yeast, AY) and the beer industry (partially dehydrated brewery yeast, BY) on milk production, fat and protein percentages, and aflatoxin M 1 (AFM 1 ) excretion in milk from dairy cows receiving 480 µg aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1 ) per day. A completely randomized design was used with 2 lactating cows assigned to each of 10 dietary treatments, as follows: negative controls (no AFB 1 or SC-based biomass), positive controls (AFB 1 alone), DY alone, DY + AFB 1 , BY alone, BY + AFB 1 , CW alone, CW + AFB 1 , AY alone, and AY + AFB 1 . The cows in the aflatoxin treatment group received AFB 1 from d 1 to 6, while the SC biomass was administered with the AFB 1 bolus from d 4 to 6. Aflatoxin B 1 or SC-based products did not affect milk production or milk composition during the experimental period. Aflatoxin M 1 was detected in the milk from all aflatoxin treatment group cows, reaching maximum levels at d 3 and varying from 0.52 ± 0.03 to 1.00 ± 0.04 µg/L. At end of the treatment period, CW, AY, DY, and BY removed 78%, 89%, 45%, and 50% of AFM 1 from the milk, respectively, based on the highest level found on d 3. Results indicate a potential application of industrial fermentation by-products, especially CW and AY, as a feed additive in the diets of dairy cows to reduce the excretion of AFM 1 in milk., (Copyright © 2017 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In this study, fumonisin B1 (FB1) consumption was assessed through determination of FB1 in corn meal, corn flour, corn flakes, polenta, canned corn and popcorn collected from homes of residents of Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil, and using a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) filled out by the residents. One hundred and twenty samples were collected from 39 residents on four separate occasions. FB1 was determined by high performance liquid chromatography using a validated method that uses SAX column clean-up. The highest levels of FB1 were found in corn meal at a mean concentration of 474.6 μg kg(-1). However, none of the samples tested for FB1 had levels above the tolerance limit established in Brazil. The mean probable daily intake (PDIM) of FB1 was 63.3 ng kg(-1)body weight day(-1), which is approximately 3% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) recommended for fumonisins., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this study was to detect and quantify fumonisin B1 (FB1) in cereal mixtures marketed in Brazil. Fifteen samples from different lots were acquired each month by internet from supermarkets during seven months, adding up to 105 analysed samples. The unit sample constituted of an original package with a minimum of 250 g. Extraction and clean-up of samples for FB1 determination were carried out using immunoaffinity columns. Identification and quantification of FB1 were performed by high performance liquid chromatography. Eighty-eight (83.8%) samples were contaminated with FB1 and four (3.8%) presented levels above 500 µg kg(-1) (634, 703, 1269 and 1876 µg kg(-1)). Maximum FB1 + FB2 levels allowed by Brazilian regulations will reach 1500 µg kg(-1) for corn flour in 2016 and 1000 µg kg(-1) for others corn products. This study showed that even at levels below the legislative limits, human exposure to this toxin can occur constantly.

In the present study, 24 samples of Minas Frescal cheese and 24 samples of Minas Padrão cheese produced in the North-east region of the state of São Paulo, Brazil, were analysed for aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) between March and August 2008. AFM₁ was detected in 13 (27.1%) samples at concentrations ranging from 0.037 to 0.313 ng g⁻¹. The mean concentrations of AFM₁ in positive samples of Minas Frescal and Minas Padrão cheese were 0.142 ± 0.118 and 0.118 ± 0.054 ng g⁻¹, respectively. It is concluded that the incidence of AFM₁ in Minas cheese may contribute to an increase in the overall ingestion of aflatoxins in the diet, hence indicating the need for the adoption of a tolerance limit for AFM₁ in cheese in Brazil.

The occurrence of aflatoxins (AF) B1, B2, G1, G2 and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) in feeds, and AFM1 and CPA in milk was determined in dairy farms located in the northeastern region of São Paulo state, Brazil, between October 2005 and February 2006. AF and CPA determinations were performed by HPLC. AFB1 was found in 42% of feed at levels of 1.0-26.4 µg kg(-1) (mean: 7.1 ± 7.2 µg kg(-1)). The concentrations of AFM1 in raw milk varied between 0.010 and 0.645 µg l(-1) (mean: 0.104 ± 0.138 µg l(-1)). Only one sample was above the tolerance limit adopted in Brazil (0.50 µg l(-1)) for AFM1 in milk. Regarding CPA in feed, six (12%) samples showed concentrations of 12.5-153.3 µg kg(-1) (mean: 57.6 ± 48.7 µg kg(-1)). CPA was detected in only three milk samples (6%) at levels of 6.4, 8.8 and 9.1 µg l(-1). Concentrations of aflatoxins and CPA in feed and milk were relatively low, although the high frequency of both mycotoxins indicates the necessity to continuously monitor dairy farms to prevent contamination of feed ingredients.

Aflatoxin M(1) (AFM(1)) and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) were determined in 48 samples of grade A-C and ultra-high-temperature (UHT)-treated fluid commercial milk from São Paulo, Brazil, from July to December 2004. AFM(1) and CPA determinations were carried out by HPLC. Results showed 37 (77.1%) positive samples for AFM(1) at levels of 0.011-0.251 microg l(-1) milk, which were below the tolerance limit for AFM(1) in milk as adopted by Brazilian regulations. Mean levels of AFM(1) in grades A-C and UHT milk were 0.060+/-0.080, 0.056+/-0.063, 0.064+/-0.041 and 0.075+/-0.048microg l(-1), respectively. CPA was detected in two samples (4.2%) of grade A milk at levels of 6.4 and 9.7 microg l(-1). This is the first report of the occurrence of CPA in milk in Brazil. It was concluded that the incidence of AFM(1) in milk traded in São Paulo is low, but the simultaneous occurrence of CPA, even at low levels, warrants concern about AFM(1) in milk and milk products.