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Background & Purpose: The constant emergence and broad toxicological effects of synthetic cannabinoids create a discernible public health threat. The synthetic cannabinoid AMB-FUBINACA (AMB-FUB) is a potent agonist at the CB 1 receptor and has been associated with numerous fatalities. Synthetic cannabinoids are commonly abused alongside other drugs and medications, including a "party pill" drug, para-fluorophenylpiperazine (pFPP), and the antipsychotic risperidone. This research aimed to investigate the mechanisms underpinning AMB-FUB toxicity and the impact of clinically relevant co-exposures in vivo., Experimental Approach: Male and female C57Bl/6 mice received a single dose of AMB-FUB (3 or 6 mg kg -1 ), pFPP (10 or 20 mg kg -1 ) or vehicle intraperitoneally. Mice were co-exposed to AMB-FUB (3 mg kg -1 ) and pFPP (10 mg kg -1 ) or risperidone (0.5 mg kg -1 ) to investigate these drug combinations. To study receptor-dependency and potential rescue of AMB-FUB toxicity, rimonabant (3 mg kg -1 ) was administered both pre- and post-AMB-FUB. Adverse effects caused by drug administration, including hypothermia and convulsions, were recorded., Key Results: AMB-FUB induced CB 1 -dependent hypothermia and convulsions in mice. The combination of AMB-FUB and pFPP significantly potentiated hypothermia, as did risperidone pre-treatment. Interestingly, risperidone provided significant protection from AMB-FUB-induced convulsions in female mice. Pre- and post-treatment with rimonabant was able to significantly attenuate both hypothermia and convulsions in mice administered AMB-FUB., Conclusion & Implications: Factors such as dose, CB 1 signalling, and substance co-exposure significantly contribute to the toxicity of AMB-FUBINACA. Mechanistic understanding of synthetic cannabinoid toxicity and fatality can help inform overdose treatment strategies and identify vulnerable populations of synthetic cannabinoid users., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest None., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Canine histiocytic sarcoma is an aggressive cancer, with a high rate of metastasis. Thus, novel therapeutic approaches are needed. Synthetic analogues of curcumin have elicited potent anti-cancer activity in multiple in vitro and in vivo models of human cancer. Furthermore, the compound 3,5-bis(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylidene)-1-methylpiperidine-4-one (RL71) has recently exhibited potent cell cycle arrest and apoptotic induction in a canine osteosarcoma cell line. To determine its potency in canine histiocytic sarcoma cells, cell viability of DH82 and Nike cells was measured using the sulforhodamine B assay. Flow cytometry was then used to analyse both cell cycle distribution and apoptosis. Of the five curcumin analogues examined, RL71, had the highest potency with EC 50 values of 0.66 ± 0.057 µM and 0.79 ± 0.13 µM in the DH82 and Nike cell lines, respectively. Furthermore, RL71 at the 1x EC 50 concentration increased G2/M cell cycle arrest 2-fold, and at the 2x EC 50 concentration increased the number of apoptotic cells 4-fold. These findings are consistent with previous work using RL71 in both canine and human cancer cell lines. Future research should be directed on time-dependent changes, and mechanistic investigation in greater detail to elucidate RL71 mechanisms of action., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Canine osteosarcoma is an aggressive cancer, comprising 85% of canine bone neoplasms. Current treatment practices of surgery and chemotherapy increase 1-year survival by only 45%. The curcumin analogue RL71, has demonstrated potent in vitro and in vivo efficacy in several models of human breast cancer through increased apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate efficacy of curcumin analogues in two canine osteosarcoma cell lines. Osteosarcoma cell viability was assessed using the sulforhodamine B assay and mechanisms of action were determined by analysing the levels of cell cycle and apoptotic regulatory proteins via Western blotting. Further evidence was obtained using flow cytometry to detect cell cycle distribution and the number of apoptotic cells. RL71 was the most potent curcumin analogue with EC 50 values of 0.64 ± 0.04 and 0.38 ± 0.009 μM (n = 3) in D-17 (commercial) and Gracie canine osteosarcoma cells, respectively. RL71 significantly increased the ratio of cleaved-caspase 3 to pro-caspase 3 and the level of apoptotic cells at the 2× and 5× EC 50 concentration (p < 0.001, n = 3). Furthermore, at the same concentration, RL71 significantly increased the number of cells in the G2/M phase. In conclusion, RL71 has potent cytotoxic activity in canine osteosarcoma cells triggering G2/M arrest and apoptosis at concentrations achievable in vivo. Future research should further investigate molecular mechanisms for these changes in other canine osteosarcoma cell lines prior to in vivo investigation., (© 2023 The Authors. Veterinary and Comparative Oncology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The potential to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of potential oestrogen-based oral contraceptives (fertility control) for possums was investigated by comparing the inhibitory potential of hepatic CYP3A and UGT2B catalytic activity using a selected compound library (CYP450 inhibitor-based compounds) in possums to that of three other species (mouse, avian, and human). The results showed higher CYP3A protein levels in possum liver microsomes compared to other test species (up to a 4-fold difference). Moreover, possum liver microsomes had significantly higher basal p -nitrophenol glucuronidation activity than other test species (up to an 8-fold difference). However, no CYP450 inhibitor-based compounds significantly decreased the catalytic activity of possum CYP3A and UGT2B below the estimated IC 50 and 2-fold IC 50 values and were therefore not considered to be potent inhibitors of these enzymes. However, compounds such as isosilybin (65%), ketoconazole (72%), and fluconazole (74%) showed reduced UGT2B glucuronidation activity in possums, mainly at 2-fold IC 50 values compared to the control ( p < 0.05). Given the structural features of these compounds, these results could provide opportunities for future compound screening. More importantly, however, this study provided preliminary evidence that the basal activity and protein content of two major drug-metabolising enzymes differ in possums compared to other test species, suggesting that this could be further exploited to reach the ultimate goal: a potential target-specific fertility control for possums in New Zealand.

AMB-FUBINACA is a synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist (SCRA), which has been associated with substantial abuse and health harm since 2016 in many countries including New Zealand. A characteristic of AMB-FUBINACA use in New Zealand has included the observation that forensic samples (from autopsies) and drugs seized by police have often been found to contain para-fluorophenylpiperazine (pFPP), a relatively little-characterised piperazine analogue that has been suggested to act through 5HT1a serotonin receptors. In the current study, we aimed to characterise the interactions of these two agents in rat physiological endpoints using plethysmography and telemetry, and to examine whether pFPP altered the subjective effects of AMB-FUBINACA in mice trained to differentiate a cannabinoid (THC) from vehicle. Though pFPP did not alter the ability of AMB-FUBINACA to substitute for THC, it did appear to abate some of the physiological effects of AMB-FUBINACA in rats by delaying the onset of AMB-FUBINACA-mediated hypothermia and shortening duration of bradycardia. In HEK cells stably expressing the CB1 cannabinoid receptor, 5HT1a, or both CB1 and 5HT1a, cAMP signalling was recorded using a BRET biosensor (CAMYEL) to assess possible direct receptor interactions. Although low potency pFPP agonism at 5HT1a was confirmed, little evidence for signalling interactions was detected in these assays: additive or synergistic effects on potency or efficacy were not detected between pFPP and AMB-FUBINACA-mediated cAMP inhibition. Experiments utilising higher potency, classical 5HT1a ligands (agonist 8OH-DPAT and antagonist WAY100635) also failed to reveal evidence for mutual CB1/5HT1a interactions or cross-antagonism. Finally, the ability of pFPP to alter the metabolism of AMB-FUBINACA in rat and human liver microsomes into its primary carboxylic acid metabolite via carboxylesterase-1 was assessed by HPLC; no inhibition was detected. Overall, the effects we have observed do not suggest that increased harm/toxicity would result from the combination of pFPP and AMB-FUBINACA., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors have no competing interests to declare., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: AMB-FUBINACA is a synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist (SCRA) which is primarily metabolised by hepatic enzymes producing AMB-FUBINACA carboxylic acid. The metabolising enzymes associated with this biotransformation remain unknown. This study aimed to determine if AMB-FUBINACA metabolism could be reduced in the presence of carboxylesterase (CES) inhibitors and recreational drugs commonly consumed with it. The affinity and activity of the AMB-FUBINACA acid metabolite at the cannabinoid type-1 receptor (CB 1 ) was investigated to determine the activity of the metabolite., Methods: The effect of CES1 and CES2 inhibitors, and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9 -THC) on AMB-FUBINACA metabolism were determined using both human liver microsomes (HLM) and recombinant carboxylesterases. Radioligand binding and cAMP assays comparing AMB-FUBINACA and AMB-FUBINACA acid were carried out in HEK293 cells expressing human CB 1 ., Results: AMB-FUBINACA was rapidly metabolised by HLM in the presence and absence of NADPH. Additionally, CES1 and CES2 inhibitors both significantly reduced AMB-FUBINACA metabolism. Furthermore, digitonin (100 µM) significantly inhibited CES1-mediated metabolism of AMB-FUBINACA by ~ 56%, while the effects elicited by Δ 9 -THC were not statistically significant. AMB-FUBINACA acid produced only 26% radioligand displacement consistent with low affinity binding. In cAMP assays, the potency of AMB-FUBINACA was ~ 3000-fold greater at CB 1 as compared to the acid metabolite., Conclusions: CES1A1 was identified as the main hepatic enzyme responsible for the metabolism of AMB-FUBINACA to its less potent carboxylic acid metabolite. This biotransformation was significantly inhibited by digitonin. Since other xenobiotics may also inhibit similar SCRA metabolic pathways, understanding these interactions may elucidate why some users experience high levels of harm following SCRA use., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Previously, we showed that novel histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors, N 1-hydroxy- N 8 -(4-(pyridine-2-carbothioamido)phenyl)octanediamide (Jazz90) and [chlorido(η 5 -pentamethylcyclopentadienyl)( N 1-hydroxy- N8 -(4-(pyridine-2-carbothioamido-κ 2 N, S )phenyl)octanediamide)rhodium(III)] chloride (Jazz167), have cytostatic and anti-angiogenic effects in androgen receptor-negative prostate cancer cells and are also non-toxic in BALB/c mice. However, only univariate statistical analysis was carried out to determine the role of individual proteins. In this study, multivariate statistical analyses (MVAs) and data mining procedures were carried out with the objective of determining the molecular networks that explain the growth inhibitory potential of Jazz90 and Jazz167 in PC3 cells and to determine potential inhibitors that can be used in combination with these HDAC inhibitors. Lasso regression revealed that angiogenic factors, vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A), and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2), alongside HDAC inhibition, predicted the reduction in cell number with an adjusted R 2 value of 0.99 following Jazz90 treatment, whereas VEGFR-2, acetylation of histone-3, and HDAC inhibition predicted cell number with an adjusted R 2 value of 0.84 following Jazz167 treatment. These results were further followed up with ridge regression, hierarchical cluster analysis, random forest classification (RFC), and support vector machines. RFC and support vector machines also predicted the treatment groups with a 100% accuracy. MVAs also revealed that Jazz90 should be examined in combination with epithelial to mesenchymal transitioning inhibitors, such as simvastatin and olaparib, whereas Jazz167 should be examined with venetoclax or navitoclax. Future studies should also address the roles of VEGF-A and VEGFR-2 in cellular proliferation, whereas p27 function should be examined for its role in PC3 cell migration., Competing Interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article., (© The Author(s) 2022.)

Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs) are characterized by a lack of approved targeted therapies and remain a challenge in the clinic. Several overexpressed proteins, including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), have been associated with TNBCs and are considered potential therapeutic targets. However, EGFR inhibitors alone failed to demonstrate a cutting-edge advantage for treating TNBCs over conventional chemotherapies. Studies have shown that selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) tamoxifen and raloxifene also affect TNBC cell viability. The combination of gefitinib and raloxifene was assessed against TNBC cell lines in vitro. Two TNBC cell lines, MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468, were used to investigate the combination of gefitinib and raloxifene on cell viability, DNA synthesis, and apoptosis. The combination was assessed on intracellular signaling pathways, colony formation, migration, and angiogenesis. In the present study, raloxifene, in combination with gefitinib, decreased cell viability. The combination potentiates apoptosis and affects the expression and phosphorylation pattern of proteins involved in cell proliferation, such as NFκB, β-catenin, and EGFR. Furthermore, evidence of apoptosis activation was also observed, along with a decreased cell migration and tumorigenicity of TNBC cells. Moreover, the combined treatment decreased the ability of neovascularization as assessed by tube formation of endothelial cells. These results suggested the potential of the combination of raloxifene and gefitinib for the prevention of TNBC growth and the appearance of metastatic events. Our findings provide the basis for future studies on the mechanism involved in raloxifene-gefitinib inhibition of ER-negative tumor growth., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a ligand-activated transcription factor thought to mediate a number of physiological roles in the body, is becoming a target of interest for the development of new therapeutics. However, previous research has demonstrated that the downstream effects of AhR ligands cannot be predicted based simply on whether a ligand acts as an agonist or antagonist and the persistence of AhR signaling is thought to be a key determining feature. The current study investigated the AhR activity of four halogenated indoles isolated from the New Zealand red alga, Rhodophyllis membranacea : 4,7-dibromo-2,3-dichloroindole (4DBDCI), 7-bromo-2,3-dichloro-6-iodoindole (BDCII), 6,7-dibromo-2,3-dichloroindole (6DBDCI) and 2,6,7-tribromo-3-chloroindole (TBCI). Their ability to activate AhR signaling, measured as CYP1A1 activity via the ethoxyresorufin O -deethylase (EROD) assay, was determined in human HepG2, mouse Hepa1c1c7 and rat H4IIE liver cancer cells. All four compounds induced CYP1A1 activity in HepG2 cells, suggesting they all acted as AhR agonizts. 4DBDCI was particularly efficacious, inducing an 11-fold increase. Hepa1c1c7 and H4IIE cells, however, were generally less responsive to the halogenated indoles. All four compounds were persistent AhR agonizts, inducing peak CYP1A1 activity after 72 h. Moreover, the 2,3,6,7-substituted BDCII, 6DBDCI and TBCI, but not 4DBDCI, competed with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo- p -dioxin (TCDD) for AhR binding as observed by the inhibition of TCDD-induced CYP1A1 activity. Overall, the current study has characterized four previously untested AhR ligands, highlighting differences in species sensitivity and persistence of signaling to provide a framework for their potential future use., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2022 The Authors.)

In this study, a comparison between the biosorption performance of six fruit and vegetable peels, namely kiwifruit (KP), apple, banana, cucumber, orange and potato immobilized on sodium alginate beads has been made. Inductively coupled plasma coupled with mass spectroscopy was used for measuring the concentration of metal ions in solution before and after biosorption. A range of kinetic models were also applied to the biosorption batch data. The results showed that biosorption percentage of the ions were different on the various beads. For example, the decreasing order of biosorption by one KP bead at equilibrium was Cd > Cu > Hg > Ni > Pb > Cr > As, with approximately 92%, 84%, 80%, 75%, 67%, 34%, and 17% simultaneous removal of ions, respectively. The fastest biosorption was seen with Cd and Pb, as both reached equilibrium by 24 h. Equilibrium time of all other ions occurred by 48 h. While all beads in their unmodified form were suitable for the removal of divalent cations, KP bead showed significantly higher removal of the anion hexavalent Cr. Biosorption of Cd, Hg and Ni was limited by both pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order reaction rates. For Cr and Cu, the reaction was controlled by film diffusion and pseudo-first order rates. At a higher solution concentration, the preference of ions biosorbed as well as their percentage removed changed. Overall, the results indicated that KP beads show promise as a cost-effective method for removing toxic ions by biosorption, especially hexavalent chromium from drinking water.

Androgen receptor (AR)-castrate-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is an aggressive form of prostate cancer that does not have clinically approved targeted treatment options. To this end, the cytotoxic potential of raloxifene and the synthetic curcumin derivative 2,6-bis (pyridin-4-ylmethylene)-cyclohexanone (RL91) was examined in AR-(PC3 and DU145) cells and AR+ (LnCaP) CRPC cells. The results showed that both raloxifene and RL91 elicited significant cytotoxicity across three cell lines with the lowest EC 50 values in PC3 cells. Additionally, the two drugs were synergistically cytotoxic toward the PC3, DU-145 and LNCaP cell lines. To determine the effect of the drug combination in vivo, an orthotopic model of CRPC was used. Male mice were injected with PC3 prostate cancer cells and then treated with vehicle (5 mL/kg), raloxifene (8.5 mg/kg, po), RL91 (8.5 mg/kg, po) or a combination of raloxifene and RL91 for six weeks. Sham animals were subjected to the surgical procedure but were not implanted with PC3 cells. The results showed that raloxifene decreased tumor size and weight as well as metastasis to renal lymph nodes. However, combination treatment reversed the efficacy of raloxifene as tumor volume and metastasis returned to control levels. The results suggest that raloxifene has tumor suppressive and anti-metastatic effects and has potential for further clinical use in AR-CRPC.

Anticancer drug discovery programmes use a large number of in-vitro assays to screen the potency of compound libraries. The accuracy and reliability of these in-vitro assays are vital in selecting potent lead candidates for further (pre)clinical studies. Among the commonly used cell viability assays, the sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay has been a popular choice due to its simplicity, accuracy, reliability and reproducibility. SRB dye interacts with protein's basic amino acids and viable cell number is determined based on the cellular protein content. In this study, the cytotoxic potency of the novel hydroxythiopyridone derivatives towards A549 and H522 cells was determined using the SRB assay. The known drugs oxaliplatin and vorinostat were also examined. The resulting EC50 values were accurate, reliable and reproducible. However, all EC50 values calculated in 6-well plates were higher compared to those determined from 96-well plates. Furthermore, results from 6-well plates were also more variable compared to 96-well plates. Our results confirm that SRB assay is a reliable technique in screening the potency of anticancer drug candidates but plating conditions need to be carefully considered., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Folivore marsupials, such as brushtail possum ( Trichosurus Vulpecula ) and koala ( Phascolarctos cinereus ), can metabolise higher levels of dietary terpenes, such as cineole, that are toxic to eutherian mammals. While the highly efficient drug metabolising enzymes, cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) and phase II conjugating enzymes (UDP-glucuronosyltransferase, UGT), are involved in the metabolism of high levels of dietary terpenes, evidence for inhibitory actions on these enzymes by these terpenes is scant. Thus, this study investigated the effect of cineole and its derivatives on catalytic activities of hepatic CYP3A and UGT in mice, rats, and possums. Results showed that cineole (up to 50 µM) and its derivatives (up to 25 µM) did not significantly inhibit CYP3A and UGT activities in mice, rats, and possums (both in silico and in vitro). Interestingly, basal hepatic CYP3A catalytic activity in the possums was ~20% lower than that in rats and mice. In contrast, possums had ~2-fold higher UGT catalytic activity when compared to mice and rats. Thus, these basal enzymatic differences may be further exploited in future pest management strategies.

Metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) has a five-year survival rate of 28%. As histone deacetylases (HDACs) are overexpressed in CRPC, the HDAC inhibitor suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) was trialled in CRPC patients but found to be toxic and inefficacious. Previously, we showed that novel HDAC inhibitors (Jazz90 (N 1-hydroxy- N 8 -(4-(pyridine-2-carbothioamido)phenyl)octanediamide) and Jazz167 ([chlorido(η 5 -pentamethylcyclopentadieny[1-4]( N 1-hydroxy- N 8 -(4-(pyridine-2-carbothioamido-κ 2 N,S )phenyl)octanediamide)rhodium(III)] chloride) had a higher cancer-to-normal-cell selectivity and superior anti-angiogenic effects in CRPC (PC3) cells than SAHA. Thus, this study aimed to further investigate the efficacy and toxicity of these compounds. HUVEC tube formation assays revealed that Jazz90 and Jazz167 significantly reduced meshes and segment lengths in the range of 55-88 and 43-64%, respectively. However, Jazz90 and Jazz167 did not affect the expression of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transitioning markers E-cadherin and vimentin. Jazz90 and Jazz167 significantly inhibited the growth of PC3 and DU145 spheroids and reduced PC3 spheroid branching. Jazz90 and Jazz167 (25, 50 and 75 mg/kg/day orally for 21 days) were non-toxic in male BALB/c mice. The efficacy and safety of these compounds demonstrate their potential for further in vivo studies in CRPC models.

Cucumber peel as a bead was examined for its ability to remove heavy metals from drinking water. Deionised laboratory water was spiked with seven toxic ions namely, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury, lead and nickel at 0.1 mg L -1 and kinetic studies were performed over 72 h. Kinetic data were modelled using film diffusion, pore diffusion, Weber-Morris, pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order and Elovich equation. The bead surface was imaged before and after biosorption using scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Results indicated that different ions contained in a multi-ion solution were biosorbed by different mechanisms and at different rates. Equilibrium biosorption for Cd, Hg and Ni was ∼91, 90 and 67%, respectively, at 24 h. These ions diffused through the pores of the bead, as they were not identified by EDS, and their biosorption increased with an increase in temperature. The least biosorbed ions were As and Cr with ∼21 and 17% equilibrium biosorption, respectively. The removal of only Cu, Hg, Pb and Ni was pH-dependent. Cucumber peel beads removed all spiked ions from real drinking water collected near the Macraes gold mine in New Zealand, but the biosorption percentage was lower for Cd, Cu, Pb and Ni compared to spiked deionised laboratory water. The results of this study suggest that cucumber peel when immobilised on a sodium alginate bead can be used as a potential biosorbent for the removal of multiple toxic ions from drinking water and their use warrants further examination in contaminated drinking water.

A second-generation enantiospecific synthesis of spiroleucettadine is described. The original reported antibacterial activity was not observed when the experiment was repeated on the synthetic samples; however, significant anti-proliferative activity was uncovered for both enantiomers of spiroleucettadine. Comparison of the optical rotational data and ORD-CD spectra of both enantiomers and the reported spectrum from the natural source have not provided a definitive answer regarding the absolute stereochemistry of naturally occurring spiroleucettadine. Efforts then focussed on alteration at the C-4 and C-5 positions of the slightly more active (-)-spiroleucettadine. Ten analogues were synthesised, with three analogues found to possess similar anti-proliferative profiles to spiroleucettadine against the H522 lung cancer cell line., (© 2020 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Androgen receptor (AR)-null prostate tumors have been observed in 11-24% of patients. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are overexpressed in prostate tumors. Therefore, HDAC inhibitors (Jazz90 and Jazz167) were examined in AR-null prostate cancer cell lines (PC3 and DU145). Both Jazz90 and Jazz167 inhibited the growth of PC3 and DU145 cells. Jazz90 and Jazz167 were more active in PC3 cells and DU145 cells in comparison to normal prostate cells (PNT1A) and showed a 2.45- and 1.30-fold selectivity and higher cytotoxicity toward DU145 cells, respectively. Jazz90 and Jazz167 reduced HDAC activity by ~60% at 50 nM in PC3 lysates. At 4 μM, Jazz90 and Jazz167 increased acetylation in PC3 cells by 6- to 8-fold. Flow cytometry studies on the cell phase distribution demonstrated that Jazz90 causes a G 0 /G 1 arrest in AR-null cells, whereas Jazz167 leads to a G 0 /G 1 arrest in DU145 cells. However, apoptosis only occurred at a maximum of 7% of the total cell population following compound treatments in PC3 and DU145 cells. There was a reduction in cyclin D1 and no significant changes in bcl-2 in DU145 and PC3 cells. Overall, the results showed that Jazz90 and Jazz167 function as cytostatic HDAC inhibitors in AR-null prostate cancer cells.

Hydroxypyr(id)ones are a pharmaceutically important class of compounds that have shown potential in diverse areas of drug discovery. We investigated the 3-hydroxy-4-pyridones 1a - 1c and 3-hydroxy-4-thiopyridones 1d - 1f as well as their Ru(η 6 - p -cymene)Cl complexes 2a - 2f , and report here the molecular structures of 1b and 1d as determined by X-ray diffraction analysis. Detailed cell biological investigations revealed potent cytotoxic activity, in particular of the 3-hydroxy-4-thiopyridones 1d - 1f , while the Ru complexes of both compound types were less potent, despite still showing antiproliferative activity in the low μM range. The compounds did not modulate the cell cycle distribution of cancer cells but were cytostatic in A549 and cytotoxic in NCI-H522 non-small lung cancer cells, among other effects on cancer cells.

Approximately 85% of all lungs cancer cases are classified as non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Kirsten rat sarcoma (KRAS) viral oncogene homolog mutations frequently occur in NSCLC patients resulting in a decreased overall survival. Additionally, currently used chemotherapeutic drugs lack selectivity,and patients experience side effects. Therefore, potent therapeutic agents are urgently needed for these patients. Plant- based compounds could be a potential option to treat KRAS-mutated NSCLC. These compounds are reported to be effective against the KRAS-linked up-stream and downstream signaling pathways that are directly or indirectly linked with cell proliferation, division, and apoptosis. Additionally, plant phytochemicals also suppressed different cell cycle phases of KRAS-mutant NSCLC cells. Furthermore, phytochemicals have a wider therapeutic index compared to chemotherapeutic drugs. Therefore, phytochemicals could benefit NSCLC patients as sole agents or as a combination therapy with approved chemotherapies. The current review aims to summarize the potential benefit of natural compounds in KRAS-mutant NSCLC., (Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub@benthamscience.net.)

Cell based studies have suggested that the diabetes drug metformin may combine with the anaplastic lymphoma kinase receptor (ALK) inhibitor crizotinib to increase ALK positive lung cancer cell killing and overcome crizotinib resistance. We therefore tested metformin alone and in combination with crizotinib in vivo, by employing a xenograft mouse model of ALK positive lung cancer. We found that 14 days of daily oral metformin (100 mg/kg) alone had a moderate but statistically significant effect on tumour growth suppression, but in combination with crizotinib, produced no greater tumour suppression than crizotinib (25 mg/kg) alone. We also reassessed the effect of metformin on EML 4 -ALK positive lung cancer (H3122) cell viability. Although metformin alone did have a moderate effect on cell viability (30% suppression) this was only at a clinically irrelevant concentration (5 mM) and there was no additive effect with cytotoxic concentrations of crizotinib. Moreover, metformin did not overcome crizotinib resistance in our resistant cells. Nevertheless, we were able to show that metformin induces a G1-cell cycle arrest and apoptosis alone and in combination with crizotinib. Also, consistent with earlier work, the addition of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) to EML 4 -ALK positive cancer cells reduced cell killing by crizotinib. We therefore hypothesised that the effect of metformin in vivo was not due to direct cytotoxicity on cancer cells, but by modulation of IGF-1 expression. We therefore measured levels of IGF-1 in plasma taken from mice treated with metformin, but found no difference between the drug treatment and control groups. We further hypothesised that the effect of metformin could be due to modulation of thrombospondin 1 (TSP-1), which metformin has been proposed to regulatein vivo, but again we found no difference between the experimental groups. Finally, we investigated the potential for liver and kidney toxicity, as well as CYP3A based interactions, from the combination of metformin with crizotinib., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The combination of more than one bioactive moiety in a multitargeted anticancer agent may result in synergistic activity of its components. Using this concept, bioorganometallic compounds were designed to feature a metal center, a 2-pyridinecarbothioamide (PCA), and a hydroxamic acid, which is found in the anticancer drug vorinostat (SAHA). The organometallics showed inhibitory activity in the nanomolar range against histone deacetylases (HDACs) as the key target for SAHA. In particular, the Rh complex was a potent inhibitor of HDAC6 over HDAC1 and HDAC8. Whereas this complex was highly cytotoxic in human cancer cells, it showed low toxicity in hemolysis studies and zebrafish, demonstrating the role of the metal center. For this complex a slightly reduced expression of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) was established, which was upregulated by SAHA. This finding indicates that the new organometallics display different modes of action than their bioactive components., (© 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK)-positive non-small-cell lung cancer most commonly arises through EML4 (Echinoderm Microtuble Like 4)-ALK chromosomal fusion. We have previously demonstrated that combination of the ALK inhibitor crizotinib with the MEK inhibitor selumetinib was highly effective at reducing cell viability of ALK-positive non-small-cell lung cancer (H3122) cells. In this study, we further investigated the efficacy of crizotinib and selumetinib combination therapy in an in vivo xenograft model of ALK-positive lung cancer. Crizotinib decreased tumor volume by 52% compared with control, and the drug combination reduced tumor growth compared with crizotinib. In addition, MEK inhibition alone reduced tumor growth by 59% compared with control. Crizotinib and selumetinib alone and in combination were nontoxic at the dose of 25 mg/kg, with values for ALT (<80 U/l) and creatinine (<2 mg/dl) within the normal range. Our results support the combined use of crizotinib with selumetinib in ALK-positive lung cancer but raise the possibility that a sufficient dose of an MEK inhibitor alone may be as effective as adding an MEK inhibitor to an ALK inhibitor. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study contains in vivo evidence supporting the use of combination MEK inhibitors in ALK+ lung cancer research, both singularly and in combination with ALK inhibitors. Contrary to previously published reports, our results suggest that it is possible to gain much of the benefit from combination treatment with an MEK inhibitor alone, at a tolerable dose., (Copyright © 2020 by The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics.)

Novel treatment regimens are required for castration-resistant prostate cancers (CRPCs) that become unresponsive to standard treatments, such as docetaxel and enzalutamide. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors showed promising results in hematological malignancies, but they failed in solid tumors such as prostate cancer, despite the overexpression of HDACs in CRPC. Four HDAC inhibitors, vorinostat, pracinostat, panobinostat and romidepsin, underwent phase II clinical trials for prostate cancers; however, phase III trials were not recommended due to a majority of patients exhibiting either toxicity or disease progression. In this review, the pharmacodynamic reasons for the failure of HDAC inhibitors were assessed and placed in the context of the advancements in the understanding of CRPCs, HDACs and resistance mechanisms. The review focuses on three themes: evolution of androgen receptor-negative prostate cancers, development of resistance mechanisms and differential effects of HDACs. In conclusion, advancements can be made in this field by characterizing HDACs in prostate tumors more extensively, as this will allow more specific drugs catering to the specific HDAC subtypes to be designed., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

We have previously shown that the curcumin derivative 3,5-bis(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylidene)-1-methylpiperidine-4-one (RL71), when encapsulated in styrene maleic acid micelles (SMA-RL71), significantly suppressed the growth of MDA-MB-231 xenografts by 67%. Univariate statistical analysis showed that pEGFR/EGFR, pAkt/Akt, pmTOR/mTOR and p4EBP1/4EPBP1 were all significantly decreased in tumors from treated mice compared to SMA controls. In this study, multivariate statistical analyses (MVAs) were performed to identify the molecular networks that worked together to drive tumor suppression, with the aim to determine if this analysis could also be used to predict treatment outcome. Linear discriminant analysis correctly predicted, to 100% certainty, mice that received SMA-RL71 treatment. Additionally, results from multiple linear regression showed that the expression of Ki67, PKC-α, PP2AA-α, PP2AA-β and CaD1 networked together to drive tumor growth suppression. Overall, the MVAs provided evidence for a molecular network of signaling proteins that drives tumor suppression in response to SMA-RL71 treatment, which should be explored further in animal studies of cancer., Competing Interests: Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (© 2013-2019 The Journal of Biological Methods, All rights reserved.)

Non-small cell lung cancer with ALK rearrangements can be targeted effectively with ALK inhibitors such as crizotinib. However, cancer progression typically occurs within a year as drug resistance develops. One strategy to overcome this drug resistance is to determine if novel cytotoxic agents retain the ability to kill lung cancer cells that have developed ALK inhibitor resistance. We therefore examined curcumin, a drug with anticancer properties, and 2 s-generation curcumin derivatives (1-methyl-3,5-bis[(E)-4-pyridyl) methylidene]-4-piperidone (RL66) and 1-isopropyl-3,5-bis[(pyridine-3-yl) methylene]piperidin-4-one (RL118)) in lung cancer cell lines. The cytotoxicity of curcumin, RL66, and RL118 were tested in both ALK + lung cancer cells (H3122), crizotinib resistant ALK + cells (CR-H3122) and ALK - lung cancer cells (A549), both alone and in combination with crizotinib. ALK + cells were 2-3x more sensitive to RL66 and RL118 than ALK - cells, with the drugs' eliciting IC 50 values in the range of 0.7-1 μM in H3122 cells. Retained cytotoxic potency of the curcumin derivatives in crizotinib resistant cells indicated that mechanisms of resistance to the two drug types are independent, with resistance to ALK inhibitors not necessarily causing cross-resistance to curcumin derivatives. This was further corroborated by drug combination analysis where the effect of the drugs in combination was consistent with Bliss additivity, consistent with independent targets for crizotinib and curcumin derivatives. Results from Western blotting showed that RL118 (2 μM) inhibited p-ALK/ALK by ~50%, which was not as potent as the 90% inhibition elicited by crizotinib (0.25 μM). Since this is the primary mechanism of crizotinib cytotoxicity this provides further evidence of independent mechanisms of toxicity., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) rearrangement, a key oncogenic driver in a small subset of non-small cell lung cancers, confers sensitivity to ALK tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Crizotinib, a first generation ALK-TKI, has superiority to standard chemotherapy with longer progression-free survival and higher objective response rate. However, clinical benefit is limited by development of resistance, typically within a year of therapy. In this study the combined effect of crizotinib and the MEK inhibitor selumetinib was investigated in both crizotinib naïve (H3122) and crizotinib resistant (CR-H3122) ALK-positive lung cancer cells. Results showed that combination treatment potently inhibited the growth of both H3122 and CR-H3122 cells, resulting from increased apoptosis and decreased cell proliferation as a consequence of suppressed downstream RAS/MAPK signalling. The drug combination also elicited a greater than 3-fold increase in Bim, a mediator of apoptosis, and p27, a cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor compared to crizotinib alone. The results support the hypothesis that combining MEK inhibitors with ALK inhibitor can overcome ALK inhibitor resistance, and identifies Bim, PARP and CDK1 as druggable targets for possible triple drug therapy.

Background: Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are known to play important roles in the initiation and progression of human cancers, as well as in angiogenesis. TAMs are considered as main components of the tumor microenvironment. Targeting TAMs may serve as a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of cancer. In this review, the signaling pathways, origin, function, polarization and clinical application of TAMs are discussed. The role of TAMs in tumor initiation, progression, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis are also emphasized. In addition, a variety of clinical and pre-clinical approaches to target TAMs are discussed., Conclusions: Clinical therapeutic approaches that show most promise include blocking the extravasation of TAMs along with using TAMs as diagnostic biomarkers for cancer progression. The targeting of TAMs in a variety of clinical settings appears to be a promising strategy for decreasing metastasis formation and for improving patient outcome.

Cancer incidences are growing and cause millions of deaths worldwide. Cancer therapy is one of the most important challenges in medicine. Improving therapeutic outcomes from cancer therapy is necessary for increasing patients' survival and quality of life. Adjuvant therapy using various types of antibodies or immunomodulatory agents has suggested modulating tumor response. Resistance to apoptosis is the main reason for radioresistance and chemoresistance of most of the cancers, and also one of the pivotal targets for improving cancer therapy is the modulation of apoptosis signaling pathways. Apoptosis can be induced by intrinsic or extrinsic pathways via stimulation of several targets, such as membrane receptors of tumor necrosis factor-α and transforming growth factor-β, and also mitochondria. Curcumin is a naturally derived agent that induces apoptosis in a variety of different tumor cell lines. Curcumin also activates redox reactions within cells inducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production that leads to the upregulation of apoptosis receptors on the tumor cell membrane. Curcumin can also upregulate the expression and activity of p53 that inhibits tumor cell proliferation and increases apoptosis. Furthermore, curcumin has a potent inhibitory effect on the activity of NF-κB and COX-2, which are involved in the overexpression of antiapoptosis genes such as Bcl-2. It can also attenuate the regulation of antiapoptosis PI3K signaling and increase the expression of MAPKs to induce endogenous production of ROS. In this paper, we aimed to review the molecular mechanisms of curcumin-induced apoptosis in cancer cells. This action of curcumin could be applicable for use as an adjuvant in combination with other modalities of cancer therapy including radiotherapy and chemotherapy., (© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Prostate cancer is initially sensitive to hormone therapy; however, over time the majority of patients progress to a hormone-insensitive form classified as castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). CRPC is highly metastatic and patients have a poor prognosis. Thus, new drugs for the treatment of this disease are required. In this study, we therefore examined the cytotoxic effects and anticancer mechanism(s) of action of second generation curcumin analogs towards CRPC cells. For this purpose, PC3 and DU145 cells were treated with a series of curcumin analogs at 0-10 µM for 72 h and cytotoxicity was determined by the sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay. Two compounds, 1-isopropyl-3,5-bis(pyridin-3-ylmethylene)-4-piperidone (RL118) and 1-methyl-3,5-[(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)methylene]-4-piperidone (RL121), were found to have the most potent cytotoxic effect with EC50 values of 0.50 and 0.58 µM in the PC3 cells and EC50 values of 0.76 and 0.69 µM in the DU145 cells, respectively. Thus, further experiments were performed focusing on these two compounds. Flow cytometry was performed to determine their effects on the cell cycle and apoptosis. Both analogs increased the number of cells in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle and induced apoptosis. Specifically, in the PC3 cells, RL121 increased the number of cells in the G2/M phase by 86% compared to the control, while RL118 increased the number of cells in the G2/M phase by 42% compared to the control after 24 h. Moreover, both RL118 and RL121 induced the apoptosis of both cell lines. In the DU145 cells, a 38-fold increase in the number of apoptotic cells was elicited by RL118 and a 78-fold increase by RL121 compared to the control. Furthermore, the effects of both analogs on the expression of key proteins involved in cell proliferation were also determined by western blot analysis. The results revealed that both analogs inhibited the expression of nuclear factor (NF)-κB (p65/RelA), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1), p-4E-BP1, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), p-mTOR, AKT and p-AKT. Thus, the findings of this study provide evidence that RL118 and RL121 have potent anticancer activity against CPRC cells, and both analogs warrant further investigation in vivo.

There is now a considerable body of evidence for sildenafil possessing anticancer properties. In this article, we argue the case for testing sildenafil as a lung cancer therapy chemoadjuvant. Currently, lung cancer is a disease with insufficient treatment options, with only 20% of patients responding to systemic chemotherapy, and even incremental potential improvements should be explored. We review the literature concerning the biochemical, physiological and metabolic effects on cancer cells by sildenafil alone, and when combined with chemotherapeutic agents. Most studies have shown that sildenafil is cytotoxic to cancer cells, both as a monotherapy and as a chemoadjuvant. Sildenafil enhances cancer cell apoptosis when used as a chemoadjuvant both in vitro and in vivo. In particular, in rodent experiments sildenafil has decreased tumour size compared to chemotherapy alone. Sildenafil has also been proven as an agent to decrease drug-efflux by cancer cells and increases blood perfusion to lung tissue, which can potentially increase the dosage of chemotherapeutic agents delivered to lung cancer cells compared to healthy tissue. In addition, the proven clinical effects of sildenafil on other lung diseases suggest that it could improve other patient outcomes, such as right ventricular function and quality of life. Sildenafil may also extend the half-life of docetaxel and some small molecule inhibitors used in lung cancer treatment by acting as an inhibitor of CYP3A4. We conclude that the evidence strongly warrants clinical investigation into the use of sildenafil as an agent for the treatment of lung-cancer., (Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub@benthamscience.org.)

Patients with triple negative breast cancer have a poor prognosis due in part to the lack of targeted therapies. In the search for novel drugs, our laboratory has developed a second-generation curcumin derivative, 3,5-bis(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylidene)-1-methylpiperidine-4-one (RL71), that exhibits potent in vitro cytotoxicity. To improve the clinical potential of this drug, we have encapsulated it in styrene maleic acid (SMA) micelles. SMA-RL71 showed improved biodistribution, and drug accumulation in the tumor increased 16-fold compared to control. SMA-RL71 (10 mg/kg, intravenously, two times a week for 2 weeks) also significantly suppressed tumor growth compared to control in a xenograft model of triple negative breast cancer. Free RL71 was unable to alter tumor growth. Tumors from SMA-RL71-treated mice showed a decrease in angiogenesis and an increase in apoptosis. The drug treatment also modulated various cell signaling proteins including the epidermal growth factor receptor, with the mechanisms for tumor suppression consistent with previous work with RL71 in vitro. The nanoformulation was also nontoxic as shown by normal levels of plasma markers for liver and kidney injury following weekly administration of SMA-RL71 (10 mg/kg) for 90 days. Thus, we report clinical potential following encapsulation of a novel curcumin derivative, RL71, in SMA micelles., Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Background: Curcumin has proven to be a potent antitumor agent in both preclinical and clinical models of colorectal cancer (CRC). It has also been identified as a ligand of the transcription factor known as the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). Our laboratory has identified the AHR as a mechanism which contributes to both tumorigenesis in a mouse model of inflammatory CRC as well an apoptotic target in vitro. Curcumin's role as an AHR ligand may modulate its effects to induce colon cancer cell death, and this role may be enhanced via structural modification of the curcumin backbone. We sought to determine if the two piperidone analogs of curcumin, RL66 and RL118, exhibit more robust antitumor actions than their parent compound in the context of colorectal cancer in vitro. Moreover, to ascertain the ability of curcumin, RL66 and RL118 to activate the AHR and evaluate if this activation has any effect on CRC cell death., Materials and Methods: DLD1, HCT116, LS513, and RKO colon cell lines were propagated in vitro. Natural curcumin was obtained commercially, whereas RL66 and RL118 were synthesized and characterized de novo. Multiwell fluorescent/luminescent signal detection was used to simultaneously ascertain cell viability, cell cytonecrosis, and relative amounts of apoptotic activity. AHR activity was measured with a dual luciferase reporter gene system. Stable expression of small interfering RNA interference was established in the HCT116 cell lines to create AHR "knock down" cell lines., Results: Both RL66 and RL118 proved to be more potent antitumor agents than their parent compound curcumin in all cell lines tested. The majority of this cell death was due to induction of apoptosis, which occurred earlier and to a greater degree following RL66 and RL118 treatment as opposed to curcumin. Also, RL66 and RL118 were found to be activators of AHR, and a portion of their ability to cause cell death was dependent on this induction. Curcumin was found unable to activate the AHR, and levels of AHR messenger RNA did not change their effects on cell death., Conclusions: Piperidone analogs of curcumin exhibited enhanced antitumor effects in vitro as opposed to their parent compound. Even more, this enhanced cell death profile may be partially attributed to the ability of these compounds to activate the AHR. Further study of synthetic curcumin analogs as chemopreventives and chemoadjuncts in CRC is warranted. Also, more generally, the AHR may represent a potential putative target for novel anticancer agents for CRC., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Our group investigated combining the phytochemical curcumin and gemcitabine in a liposome, to improve gemcitabine's activity against pancreatic tumours. While optimising the curcumin: gemcitabine ratio for co-encapsulation, we found that increasing curcumin concentrations relative to gemcitabine resulted in antagonistic interactions. As curcumin is a promiscuous transporter inhibitor; we suspected that increased resistance occurred via inhibition of Equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 (ENT1)-mediated gemcitabine uptake. To test our hypothesis, we determined whether curcumin and a related analogue, 2,6-bis((3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl)methylene)-cyclohexanone (or A13), inhibited ENT1-mediated accumulation of [ 3 H]uridine and [ 3 H]gemcitabine into pancreatic cancer cells. We then confirmed the inhibition of gemcitabine accumulation by investigating whether curcumin/A13 could increase gemcitabine resistance in growth inhibition assays. We found that curcumin and A13 concentration-dependently inhibited the ENT1-mediated accumulation of both uridine and gemcitabine in MIA PaCa-2 and PANC-1 cells. We also found that non-toxic concentrations of curcumin and A13 significantly increased the resistance of both cell lines to gemcitabine. Increased resistance only occurred when curcumin/A13 was co-incubated with gemcitabine, and not with sequential exposure (i.e., curcumin first, followed by gemcitabine, or vice versa). We also found that the curcumin analogue (3E,5E)-3,5-bis[(2-fluorophenyl)methylene]-4-piperidinone (or EF24) did not inhibit gemcitabine accumulation, making it more suitable in combinations than curcumin/A13. From these results, we concluded that curcumin and A13 are inhibitors of the ENT1 transporter, but only at high concentrations (2-20µM). Curcumin is unlikely to inhibit gemcitabine uptake in tumours but may interfere with the oral absorption of ENT1 substrates due to high gut concentrations readily achievable from over-the-counter tablets/capsules., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Castrate-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) remains incurable due to the lack of effective therapies. Several tyrosine kinases have been implicated in the development and growth of CRPC, as such targeting these kinases may offer an alternative therapeutic strategy. We established the combination of two tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), sorafenib and nilotinib, as the most cytotoxic. In addtion, to improve their bioavailability and reduce their metabolism, we encapsulated sorafenib and nilotinib into styrene-co-maleic acid micelles. The micelles' charge, size, and release rate were characterized. We assessed the effect of the combination on the cytotoxicity, cell cycle, apoptosis, protein expression, tumor spheroid integrity, migration, and invasion. The micelles exhibited a mean diameter of 100 nm, a neutral charge, and appeared highly stable. The micellar TKIs promoted greater cytotoxicity, decreased cell proliferation, and increased apoptosis relative to the free TKIs. In addition, the combination reduced the expression and activity of several tyrosine kinases and reduced tumor spheroid integrity and metastatic potential of CRPC cell lines more efficiently than the single treatments. The combination increased the therapeutic potential and demonstrated the relevance of a targeted combination therapy for the treatment of CRPC. In addition, the efficacy of the encapsulated drugs provides the basis for an in vivo preclinical testing.

Background: Castrate-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) patients are characterised by a 5-year relative survival rate of ∼25-33%. Recently, our laboratory encapsulated a selective oestrogen receptor modulator, raloxifene, into poly(styrene-co-maleic acid) (SMA-raloxifene), which demonstrated superior in vitro cytotoxicity compared with free drug against several CRPC cell lines., Purpose: To validate SMA-raloxifene for the management of CRPC using a mouse xenograft model., Methods: The internalisation and retention of micellar and free raloxifene in vitro were measured by HPLC. A PC3-CRPC xenograft model was used to compare the biodistribution of both raloxifene formulations, as well as their effect on tumour progression where mice received free raloxifene (1 or 5 mg/kg, i.v.) or SMA-raloxifene (1 mg/kg, i.v.) weekly for 4 weeks., Results: SMA-raloxifene exhibited 75% higher intracellular content compared to free drug after 48 h in PC3 cells. Biodistribution of raloxifene was 69% higher in tumours following SMA-raloxifene compared with free raloxifene. Weekly administration of 1 mg/kg free raloxifene reduced tumour progression by 20% after 4 weeks, whereas 1 mg/kg SMA-raloxifene and 5 mg/kg free raloxifene reduced progression by 40%., Conclusion: Encapsulation of raloxifene increased its therapeutic potential for the management of CRPC.

There is a need for new, safe and efficacious drug therapies for the treatment of estrogen receptor (ER)-negative breast cancers. Raloxifene and the 2nd generation curcumin derivative 2,6-bis(pyridin-4-ylmethylene)-cyclohexanone (RL91) have been shown to inhibit the growth of ER-negative breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. We investigated whether RL91 could enhance the growth-suppressive effects mediated by raloxifene in MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-468, Hs578t and SkBr3 human breast cancer cell lines. The cytotoxicity was consistent across the cell lines but RL91 was more potent. EC50 values for RL91 were 1.2-2 µM while EC50 values for raloxifene were 9.6-11.2 µM. When the cells were treated with raloxifene (15 µM), RL91 (1 µM) or a combination of the two for 6-72 h, the combination treatment consistently elicited significantly greater cytotoxicity compared to all other treatments. In SkBr3 cells the combination treatment caused significantly more cells to undergo G1 arrest compared to raloxifene. In all cell lines apoptosis was synergistically induced by the combination treatment, as shown by both flow cytometery and cleaved caspase-3. Furthermore, the stress kinase p38 was increased and EFGR isoforms were decreased by both raloxifene and raloxifene + RL91. The anti-angiogenic anti-metastatic potential of raloxifene was not increased by RL91, as MDA-MB-231 cell migration and invasion as well as endothelial tube formation by HUVEC cells was not different between raloxifene (10 µM) and the combination of raloxifene + RL91. Thus, our findings provide evidence that RL91 increases the ability of raloxifene to suppress ER-negative cancer cell growth by increasing the number of apoptotic cells. The broad effect of this drug combination across a range of ER-negative breast cancer cell lines indicates that this drug combination should be explored further in order to find a safe and efficacious therapy for ER-negative breast cancer.

Curcumin (CUR) is a phytochemical that inhibits the xenobiotic ABC efflux transporters implicated in cancer multidrug resistance (MDR), such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp), breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) and multidrug resistance-associated proteins 1 and 5 (MRP1 and MRP5). The use of CUR in the clinic however, is complicated by its instability and poor pharmacokinetic profile. Monocarbonyl analogs of CUR (MACs) are compounds without CUR's unstable β-diketone moiety and were reported to have improved stability and in vivo disposition. Whether the MACs can be used as MDR reversal agents is less clear, as the absence of a β-diketone may negatively impact transporter inhibition. In this study, we investigated 23 heterocyclic cyclohexanone MACs for inhibitory effects against P-gp, BCRP, MRP1 and MRP5. Using flow cytometry and resistance reversal assays, we found that many of these compounds inhibited the transport activity of the ABC transporters investigated, often with much greater potency than CUR. Overall the analogs were most effective at inhibiting BCRP and we identified three compounds, A12 (2,6-bis((E)-2,5-dimethoxy-benzylidene)cyclohexanone), A13 (2,6-bis((E)-4-hydroxyl-3-methoxybenzylidene)-cyclohexanone) and B11 (3,5-bis((E)-2-fluoro-4,5-dimethoxybenzylidene)-1-methylpiperidin-4-one), as the most promising BCRP inhibitors. These compounds inhibited BCRP activity in a non-cell line, non-substrate-specific manner. Their inhibition occurred by direct transporter interaction rather than modulating protein or cell surface expression. From these results, we concluded that MACs, such as the heterocyclic cyclohexanone analogs in this study, also have potential as MDR reversal agents and may be superior alternatives to the unstable parent compound, CUR., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Of patients with castrate resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), less than 25-33% survive more than five years. Recent studies have implicated estrogen, acting either alone or synergistically with androgens in the development of castrate resistant prostate cancer. Several in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as a limited number of clinical trials, have highlighted the potential of selective estrogen receptor modulators, such as raloxifene (Ral) for the treatment of castrate resistant prostate cancer. However, the poor oral bioavailability and metabolism of selective estrogen receptor modulators limit their efficiency in clinical application. To overcome these limitations, we have used styrene co-maleic acid (SMA) micelle to encapsulate raloxifene. Compared to free drug, SMA-Ral micelles had 132 and 140% higher cytotoxicity against PC3 and DU 145 prostate cell lines, respectively. SMA-Ral effectively inhibits cell cycle progression, increases apoptosis, and alters the integrity of tumor spheroid models. In addition, the micellar system induced changes in expression and localization of estrogen receptors, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and downstream effectors associated with cell proliferation and survival. Finally, SMA-Ral treatment decreased migration and invasion of castrate resistant prostate cancer cell lines. In conclusion, SMA-Ral micelles can potentially benefit new strategies for clinical management of castrate resistant prostate cancer.

The poor prognosis of patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and the lack of targeted treatments have raised the need for alternative therapies. Previous studies have suggested an effect of raloxifene, a selective estrogen receptor modulator that is independent of the estrogen receptor (ER). Therefore, we assessed the therapeutic value of raloxifene in TNBC mouse models. Mice received a daily oral treatment with different doses of raloxifene. Tumor progression was monitored weekly; in addition microvessel density, proliferation, migration and invasion, apoptosis and tumorigenicity were analyzed. This study demonstrates that raloxifene (0.85 mg/kg) prevents TNBC tumor growth and induces tumor regression. The treated tumors showed a 54% decreased microvascular density and proliferation and a 7-fold increase in apoptosis. The underlying therapeutic mechanism of raloxifene was associated with a 27-fold decrease in the expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Moreover, raloxifene promoted the translocation of EGFR into endosomes associated with decreased cell migration, cell invasion and tumorigenicity in vitro. Together, these data showed that raloxifene acts independently of the ER and may be relevant for the treatment as well as control the progression of TNBC.

Cannabinoids have been attracting a great deal of interest as potential anticancer agents. Originally derived from the plant Cannabis sativa, there are now a number of endo-, phyto- and synthetic cannabinoids available. This review summarizes the key literature to date around the actions, antitumor activity, and mechanisms of action for this broad range of compounds. Cannabinoids are largely defined by an ability to activate the cannabinoid receptors - CB1 or CB2. The action of the cannabinoids is very dependent on the exact ligand tested, the dose, and the duration of exposure. Some cannabinoids, synthetic or plant-derived, show potential as therapeutic agents, and evidence across a range of cancers and evidence in vitro and in vivo is starting to be accumulated. Studies have now been conducted in a wide range of cell lines, including glioma, breast, prostate, endothelial, liver, and lung. This work is complemented by an increasing body of evidence from in vivo models. However, many of these results remain contradictory, an issue that is not currently able to be resolved through current knowledge of mechanisms of action. While there is a developing understanding of potential mechanisms of action, with the extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway emerging as a critical signaling juncture in combination with an important role for ceramide and lipid signaling, the relative importance of each pathway is yet to be determined. The interplay between the intracellular pathways of autophagy versus apoptosis is a recent development that is discussed. Overall, there is still a great deal of conflicting evidence around the future utility of the cannabinoids, natural or synthetic, as therapeutic agents.

Background: Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a subtype of breast cancer characterized by its poor outcome and a lack of targeted therapies. Recently, our laboratory has developed a second generation curcumin derivative, 3,5-bis(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylidene)-1-methylpiperidine-4-one (RL71) that shows potent in vitro cytotoxicity. RL71 is hydrophobic with poor bioavailability which limits its clinical development., Purpose: We have designed styrene-co-maleic acid (SMA) micelles encapsulating 5, 10 or 15% RL71 by weight/weight ratio to improve its solubility and pharmacokinetic profile., Methods: The micelles charge, size and release rate were characterized. We evaluated their cytotoxicity against TNBC cell lines. The internalization of the drug inside the cells was measured by HPLC and the efficiency of the micelles was tested using a tumor spheroid model., Results: The micelles exhibited mean diameters of 125-185 nm and had a neutral charge. SMA-RL71 micelles have a cytotoxicity profile comparable to the free drug against several TNBC cell lines. Moreover, the 15% loaded micelles increased the stability of RL71 and demonstrated higher activity in a tumor spheroid model., Conclusion: The current study demonstrates the efficiency of SMA for drug delivery, the influence of physicochemical characteristics on cytotoxicity, and provides the basis for preclinical testing in vivo.

Breast cancer is commonly treated with anti-estrogens or aromatase inhibitors, but resistant disease eventually develops and new therapies for such resistance are of great interest. We have previously isolated several tamoxifen-resistant variant sub-lines of the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line and provided evidence that they arose from expansion of pre-existing minor populations. We have searched for therapeutic agents that exhibit selective growth inhibition of the resistant lines and here investigate 2,6-bis(pyridin-3-ylmethylene)-cyclohexanone (RL90) and 2,6-bis(pyridin-4-ylmethylene)-cyclohexanone (RL91). We found that two of the tamoxifen-resistant sub-lines (TamR3 and TamC3) unexpectedly showed increased sensitivity to RL90 and RL91. We utilized growth inhibition assays, flow cytometry and immunoblotting to establish a mechanistic basis for their action. Treated sensitive cells showed S-phase selective DNA damage, as detected by histone H2AX phosphorylation. Cellular responses were similar to those induced by the topoisomerase I poison camptothecin. Although IC(50) values of camptothecin, RL90, RL91 were correlated, studies with purified mammalian topoisomerase I suggested that RL90 and RL91 differed from camptothecin by acting as catalytic topoisomerase I inhibitors. These drugs provide a platform for the further development of DNA damaging drugs that have selective effects on tamoxifen resistant breast cancer cells. The results also raise the question of whether clinical topoisomerase I poisons such as irinotecan and topotecan might be active in the treatment of some types of tamoxifen-resistant cancer.

Background: Curcumin inhibits growth of several cancer cell lines, and studies in this laboratory in bladder and pancreatic cancer cells show that curcumin downregulates specificity protein (Sp) transcription factors Sp1, Sp3 and Sp4 and pro-oncogenic Sp-regulated genes. In this study, we investigated the anticancer activity of curcumin and several synthetic cyclohexanone and piperidine analogs in colon cancer cells., Methods: The effects of curcumin and synthetic analogs on colon cancer cell proliferation and apoptosis were determined using standardized assays. The changes in Sp proteins and Sp-regulated gene products were analysed by western blots, and real time PCR was used to determine microRNA-27a (miR-27a), miR-20a, miR-17-5p and ZBTB10 and ZBTB4 mRNA expression., Results: The IC50 (half-maximal) values for growth inhibition (24 hr) of colon cancer cells by curcumin and synthetic cyclohexanone and piperidine analogs of curcumin varied from 10 μM for curcumin to 0.7 μM for the most active synthetic piperidine analog RL197, which was used along with curcumin as model agents in this study. Curcumin and RL197 inhibited RKO and SW480 colon cancer cell growth and induced apoptosis, and this was accompanied by downregulation of specificity protein (Sp) transcription factors Sp1, Sp3 and Sp4 and Sp-regulated genes including the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), hepatocyte growth factor receptor (c-MET), survivin, bcl-2, cyclin D1 and NFκB (p65 and p50). Curcumin and RL197 also induced reactive oxygen species (ROS), and cotreatment with the antioxidant glutathione significantly attenuated curcumin- and RL197-induced growth inhibition and downregulation of Sp1, Sp3, Sp4 and Sp-regulated genes. The mechanism of curcumin-/RL197-induced repression of Sp transcription factors was ROS-dependent and due to induction of the Sp repressors ZBTB10 and ZBTB4 and downregulation of microRNAs (miR)-27a, miR-20a and miR-17-5p that regulate these repressors., Conclusions: These results identify a new and highly potent curcumin derivative and demonstrate that in cells where curcumin and RL197 induce ROS, an important underlying mechanism of action involves perturbation of miR-ZBTB10/ZBTB4, resulting in the induction of these repressors which downregulate Sp transcription factors and Sp-regulated genes.

There is a need for the development of new safe and efficacious drug therapies for the treatment of estrogen receptor (ER)‑negative breast cancers. 1-Methyl-3,5-bis[(E)-4-pyridyl)methylidene]-4-piperidone (RL66) is a second generation curcumin analog that exhibits potent cytotoxicity towards a variety of ER-negative breast cancer cells. Therefore, we have further examined the mechanism of this novel drug in in vitro and in vivo models of ER-negative breast cancer. The mechanistic studies demonstrated that RL66 (2 µM) induced cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle. Moreover, RL66 (2 µM) caused 40% of SKBr3 cells to undergo apoptosis after 48 h and this effect was time-dependent. This correlated with an increase in cleaved caspase-3 as shown by western blot analysis. RL66 (2 µM) also decreased HER2/neu phosphorylation and increased p27 in SKBr3 cells, while in MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells RL66 (2 µM) significantly decreased Akt phosphorylation and transiently increased the stress kinases JNK1/2 and MAPK p38. In addition, RL66 exhibited anti-angiogenic potential in vitro as it inhibited HUVEC cell migration 46% and the ability of these cells to form tube‑like networks. RL66 (8.5 mg/kg) suppressed the growth of MDA-MB-468 xenograft tumors by 48% compared to vehicle control following 10 weeks of daily oral administration. Microvessel density in the tumors from treated mice was also decreased 57% compared to control. Thus our findings demonstrate that RL66 has potent proapoptotic and anti-angiogenic properties in vivo and in vitro and has the potential to be further developed as a drug for the treatment of ER‑negative breast cancer.

There is a need for the development of new, safe and efficacious drug therapies for the treatment of estrogen receptor (ER)-negative breast cancers. RL71 is a second-generation curcumin analog that exhibits potent cytotoxicity towards a variety of ER-negative breast cancer cells. Therefore, we have further examined the mechanism of this anticancer activity in three different ER-negative breast cancer cell lines. The mechanistic studies demonstrated that RL71 (1 µM) induced cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle. Moreover, RL71 (1 µM) caused 35% of SKBr3 cells to undergo apoptosis after 48 h and this effect was time-dependent. This correlated with an increase in cleaved caspase-3 as shown by western blotting. RL71 (1 µM) also decreased HER2/neu phosphorylation and increased p27 in SKBr3 cells. While in MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells RL71 (1 µM) significantly decreased Akt phosphorylation and transiently increased the stress kinases JNK1/2 and p38 MAPK. In addition, RL71 exhibited anti-angiogenic potential in vitro as it inhibited HUVEC cell migration and the ability of these cells to form tube-like networks. RL71 (8.5 mg/kg) was also orally bioavailable as it produced a peak plasma concentration of 0.405 µg/ml, 5 min after oral drug administration. Thus, our findings provide evidence that RL71 has potent anticancer activity and has potential to be further developed as a drug for the treatment of ER-negative breast cancer.

Estrogen receptor (ER)-negative breast cancer is an aggressive form that currently requires more drug treatment options. Thus, we have further modified cyclohexanone derivatives of curcumin and examined them for cytotoxicity towards ER-negative human breast cancer cells. Two of the analogs screened elicited increased cytotoxic potency compared to curcumin and other previously studied derivatives. Specifically, 2,6-bis(pyridin-3-ylmethylene)-cyclohexanone (RL90) and 2,6-bis(pyridin-4-ylmethylene)-cyclohexanone (RL91) elicited EC(50) values of 1.54 and 1.10 µM, respectively, in MDA-MB-231 cells and EC(50) values of 0.51 and 0.23 in SKBr3 cells. All other new compounds examined were less potent than curcumin, which elicited EC(50) values of 7.6 and 2.4 µM in MDA-MB-231 and SKBr3 cells, respectively. Mechanistic analyses demonstrated that RL90 and RL91 significantly induced G(2)/M-phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. RL90 and RL91 also modulated the expression of key cell signaling proteins, specifically, in SKBr3 cells, protein levels of Her-2, Akt, and NFκB were decreased in a time-dependent manner, while activity of stress kinases JNK1/2 and P38 MAPK were increased. Signaling events in MDA-MB-231 cells were differently implicated, as EGFR protein levels were decreased and activity of GSK-3β transiently decreased, while β-catenin protein level and activity of P38 MAPK, Akt, and JNK1/2 were transiently increased. In conclusion replacement of the phenyl group of cyclohexanone derived curcumin derivatives with heterocyclic rings forms a class of second-generation analogs that are more potent than both curcumin and other derivatives. These new derivatives provide a platform for the further development of drugs for the treatment of ER-negative breast cancer.

A series of 18 heterocyclic cyclohexanone analogues of curcumin have been synthesised and screened for their activity in both adherent and non-adherent cancer cell models. Cytotoxicity towards MBA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, as well as ability to inhibit NF-kappaB transactivation in non-adherent K562 leukemia cells were investigated. Three of these analogues 3,5-bis(pyridine-4-yl)-1-methylpiperidin-4-one B1, 3,5-bis(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzylidene)-1-methylpiperidin-4-one B10, and 8-methyl-2,4-bis((pyridine-4-yl)methylene)-8-aza-bicyclo[3.2.1]octan-3-one C1 showed potent cytotoxicity towards MBA-MB-231, MDA-MB-468, and SkBr3 cell lines with EC50 values below 1 microM and inhibition of NF-kappaB activation below 7.5 microM. The lead drug candidate, B10, was also able to cause 43% of MDA-MB-231 cells to undergo apoptosis after 18 h. This level of activity warrants further investigation for the treatment of ER-negative breast cancer and/or chronic myelogenous leukemia as prototypical cellular models for solid and liquid tumors., (Copyright (c) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The anticancer effects elicited by epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) are well established in various models of cancer, while raloxifene is as an established selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM), which is not yet clinically utilized for the treatment of breast cancer. Previous study from this laboratory has demonstrated that the combination of EGCG (25 microM) and raloxifene (4 microM) elicits a strong cytotoxic response in MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells, which lack the estrogen receptor (ER) and erbB-2/ Her-2 receptor. This study was therefore designed to probe the mechanism underlying this cytotoxic response, with an emphasis on determining how the combination treatment influenced the total expression and phosphorylation of key signaling proteins. Specifically, following 12 and 18 h of the combination treatment, we observed significant decreases in the phosphorylation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), AKT, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and S-6-kinase (S6K), and significant increases in the phosphorylation of stress activated protein kinases (SAPKs). Furthermore, these changes were associated with a reduction in the nuclear localization of p65, a major subunit of NF-kappaB. These results demonstrate that the combination of EGCG and raloxifene effectively reduced the mitogenic and survival signaling in MDA-MB-231 cells. Thus, this combination warrants further experimentation as a potential treatment for ER-negative breast cancer.

Since deer velvet (DV) extract promotes angiogenesis, its ability to modulate the growth and invasiveness of colon tumours was investigated. Male Wistar rats were each given a subcutaneous injection of azoxymethane (AOM) at 15 mg/kg once a week for 3 weeks. One week following the last dose of AOM the rats received either 1g/kg of DV delivered in a cube of raspberry gelatin or plain raspberry gelatin daily for 26 weeks. At necropsy, tumours were measured and the distance from the anus was recorded. Tissue samples were categorised according to the Astler-Coller system. The results showed that there were no significant differences in most parameters examined (i.e. body weight gain, multiplicity, tumour volume and incidence). The only statistically significant differences seen were associated with metastasis and tumour grade. Specifically, more of the tumours in the DV-treated rats were of a lower grade compared to the controls, both when all tumour sites were considered (0.91 vs. 0.66, p<0.0001), as well as those located only in the colon (0.95 vs. 0.84, p<0.03). Therefore, this study can confidently conclude that DV does not increase the incidence, multiplicity, metastasis or tumour volume of AOM-induced colon cancer in the rat., (Copyright (c) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)