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Hyponatremia is the most frequent electrolyte alteration among hospitalized patients and it has been reported in 20-40% of patients with SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) infection. Multiple causes of hyponatremia have been hypothesized in these patients. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis (SIAD) has been considered one of the main reasons leading to hyponatremia in this condition. SIAD can be secondary to cytokines release, in particular IL-6. Positive pressure ventilation can be another cause of hyponatremia due to SIAD. Other possible etiologies of hyponatremia in COVID-19 patients can be related to secondary hypocortisolism, nausea, vomiting, heart and kidney damage. Similar to many other clinical conditions, there is strong evidence that hyponatremia is associated with a worse prognosis also in patients with COVID-19 infection. In particular, hyponatremia has been identified as an independent risk of ICU transfer, need of non-invasive ventilation and death. Hyponatremia in COVID-19 patients is in principle acute and symptomatic and should be treated as such, according to the published guidelines. Therefore, patients should be initially treated with i.v. hypertonic saline (3% NaCl) infusion and serum [Na + ] should be frequently monitored, in order to remain within a safe rate of correction. There is evidence showing that serum [Na + ] correction is associated with a better outcome in different pathologies, including COVID-19 infection., Competing Interests: Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Hyponatremia is the most common electrolyte disorder encountered in hospitalized patients. This applies also to cancer patients. Multiple causes can lead to hyponatremia, but most frequently this electrolyte disorder is due to the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis. In cancer patients, this syndrome is mostly secondary to ectopic secretion of arginine vasopressin by tumoral cells. In addition, several chemotherapeutic drugs induce the release of arginine vasopressin by the hypothalamus. There is evidence that hyponatremia is associated to a more negative outcome in several pathologies, including cancer. Many studies have demonstrated that in different cancer types, both progression-free survival and overall survival are negatively affected by hyponatremia, whereas the correction of serum [Na + ] has a positive effect on patient outcome. In vitro studies have shown that cells grown in low [Na + ] have a greater proliferation rate and motility, due to a dysregulation in intracellular signalling pathways. Noteworthy, vasopressin receptors antagonists, which were approved more than a decade ago for the treatment of euvolemic and hypervolemic hyponatremia, have shown unexpected antiproliferative effects. Because of this property, vaptans were also approved for the treatment of polycystic kidney disease. In vitro evidence indicated that this family of drugs effectively counteracts proliferation and invasivity of cancer cells, thus possibly opening a new scenario among the pharmacological strategies to treat cancer.

Background: The impact of chronic moderate and profound hyponatremia on neurocognitive performance, motor skills, and mood stability has not been investigated systematically so far, and results regarding mild to moderate hyponatremia are inconsistent. Furthermore, it is not known whether treatment has an effect on outcome in these patients., Methods: A total of 130 hospitalized patients with confirmed euvolemic hyponatremia (<130 mEq/L) were subjected to a test battery (Mini-Mental State Examination, DemTect, Trail-Making Tests A and B, Beck Depression Inventory, Timed-up-and-go Test) before and after treatment; additionally, 50 normonatremic group-matched patients served as reference group., Results: The scores of all tested domains were significantly worse in the hyponatremia group (median serum sodium [Na + ] 122 (119-126) mEq/L) as compared to the reference group (P <0.001), and the odds of obtaining a pathological test result increased markedly with more profound hyponatremic states (odds ratios between 5.0 and 21.8 in the group with Na + <120 mEq/L compared to reference group). Inversely, treatment led to a significant amelioration of all test results with medium to large effect sizes. Linear regression models revealed the increment of Na + as an important predictor of test outcome., Conclusion: We demonstrate a clear association between lower levels of Na + beyond mild hyponatremia and impairment of neurocognitive and motor performance as well as mood disorders. Our analysis further suggests a causal role of hyponatremia in this context. However, there are apparent differences between the distinct tested domains warranting further investigations., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To perform a meta-analysis based on published studies that compared falls and bone fractures between patients with and without hyponatremia., Context: There is evidence suggesting that hyponatremia is associated with an increased risk of falls and bone fractures., Design: An extensive Medline, Embase and Cochrane search was performed to retrieve all studies published up to, 30 April 2017, using the following words: "hyponatremia" or "hyponatraemia" AND "falls" and "bone fractures." A meta-analysis was performed including all studies comparing falls and bone fractures in subjects with or without hyponatremia., Patients and Results: Of 216 retrieved articles, 15 studies satisfied inclusion criteria encompassing a total of 51 879 patients, of whom 2329 were hyponatremic. Across all studies, hyponatremia was associated with a significantly increased risk of falls (MH-OR = 2.14[1.71; 2.67]. This result was confirmed when only hospitalized patients were considered (MH-OR = 2.44 [1.97; 3.02]). A meta-regression analysis showed that the hyponatremia-related risk of falls was higher in those studies considering a lower serum [Na + ] cut-off to define hyponatremia. Interestingly, the estimated risk of falls related to hyponatremia was already significantly higher when a serum [Na + ] cut-off of 135 mmol/L was considered (MH-OR = 1.26[1.23;1.29]). The presence of hyponatremia was also associated with a higher risk of fractures, particularly hip fractures (MH-OR = 2.00[1.43;2.81])., Conclusions: This study confirms that hyponatremia is associated with an increased risk of falls and bone fractures. The clinical, social and economic relevance of such association is strengthened by the increased incidence of hyponatremia in older people., (© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Hyponatremia is the most common electrolyte disorder in clinical practice, and evidence to date indicates that severe hyponatremia is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. The aim of our study was to perform a meta-analysis that included the published studies that compared mortality rates in subjects with or without hyponatremia of any degree., Methods and Findings: An extensive Medline, Embase and Cochrane search was performed to retrieve the studies published up to October 1st 2012, using the following words: "hyponatremia" and "mortality". Eighty-one studies satisfied inclusion criteria encompassing a total of 850222 patients, of whom 17.4% were hyponatremic. The identification of relevant abstracts, the selection of studies and the subsequent data extraction were performed independently by two of the authors, and conflicts resolved by a third investigator. Across all 81 studies, hyponatremia was significantly associated with an increased risk of overall mortality (RR = 2.60[2.31-2.93]). Hyponatremia was also associated with an increased risk of mortality in patients with myocardial infarction (RR = 2.83[2.23-3.58]), heart failure (RR = 2.47[2.09-2.92]), cirrhosis (RR = 3.34[1.91-5.83]), pulmonary infections (RR = 2.49[1.44-4.30]), mixed diseases (RR = 2.59[1.97-3.40]), and in hospitalized patients (RR = 2.48[2.09-2.95]). A mean difference of serum [Na(+)] of 4.8 mmol/L was found in subjects who died compared to survivors (130.1 ± 5.6 vs 134.9 ± 5.1 mmol/L). A meta-regression analysis showed that the hyponatremia-related risk of overall mortality was inversely correlated with serum [Na(+)]. This association was confirmed in a multiple regression model after adjusting for age, gender, and diabetes mellitus as an associated morbidity., Conclusions: This meta-analysis shows for the first time that even a moderate serum [Na(+)] decrease is associated with an increased risk of mortality in commonly observed clinical conditions across large numbers of patients.