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Optimization of a breeding program requires assessing and quantifying empirical genetic trends made through past efforts relative to the current breeding strategies, germplasm, technologies, and policy. To establish the genetic trends in the Kenyan Highland Maize Breeding Program (KHMP), a two-decade (1999-2020) historical dataset from the Preliminary Variety Trials (PVT) and Advanced Variety Trials (AVT) was analyzed. A mixed model analysis was used to compute the genetic gains for traits based on the best linear unbiased estimates in the PVT and AVT evaluation stages. A positive significant genetic gain estimate for grain yield of 88 kg ha -1 year -1 (1.94% year -1 ) and 26 kg ha -1 year -1 (0.42% year -1 ) was recorded for PVT and AVT, respectively. Root lodging, an important agronomic trait in the Kenya highlands, had a desired genetic gain of -2.65% year -1 for AVT. Results showed improvement in resistance to Turcicum Leaf Blight (TLB) with -1.19% and -0.27% year -1 for the PVT and AVT, respectively. Similarly, a significant genetic trend of -0.81% was noted for resistance to Gray Leaf Spot (GLS) in AVT. These findings highlight the good progress made by KHMP in developing adapted maize hybrids for Kenya's highland agroecology. Nevertheless, the study identified significant opportunities for the KHMP to make even greater genetic gains for key traits with introgression of favorable alleles for various traits, implementing a continuous improvement plan including marker-assisted forward breeding, sparse testing, and genomic selection, and doubled haploid technology for line development., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Ligeyo, Saina, Awalla, Sneller, Chivasa, Musundire, Makumbi, Mulanya, Milic, Mutiga, Lagat, Das and Prasanna.)

Monitoring genetic gains within breeding programs is a critical component for continuous improvement. While several national breeding programs in Africa have assessed genetic gain using era studies, this study is the first to use two decades of historical data to estimate genetic trends within a national breeding program. The objective of this study was to assess genetic trends within the final two stages of Zimbabwe's Department of Research & Specialist Services maize breeding pipeline between 2002 and 2021. Data from 107 intermediate and 162 advanced variety trials, comprising of 716 and 398 entries, respectively, was analyzed. Trials were conducted under optimal, managed drought stress, low nitrogen stress, low pH, random stress, and disease pressure (maize streak virus (MSV), grey leaf spot (GLS), and turcicum leaf blight under artificial inoculation. There were positive and significant genetic gains for grain yield across management conditions (28-35 kg ha -1 yr -1 ), under high-yield potential environments (17-61 kg ha -1 yr -1 ), and under low-yield potential environments (0-16 kg ha -1 yr -1 ). No significant changes were observed in plant and ear height over the study period. Stalk and root lodging, as well as susceptibility to MSV and GLS, significantly decreased over the study period. New breeding technologies need to be incorporated into the program to further increase the rate of genetic gain in the maize breeding programs and to effectively meet future needs., Competing Interests: PM was employed by Mukushi Seeds Pvt Ltd. CM was employed by Tocek Investments Pvt Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Mukaro, Chaingeni, Sneller, Cairns, Musundire, Prasanna, Mavankeni, Das, Mulanya, Chivasa, Mhike, Ndhlela, Matongera, Matova, Muungani, Mutimaamba, Wegary, Zaman-Allah, Magorokosho, Chingwara and Kutywayo.)

Estimating genetic gains is vital to optimize breeding programs for increased efficiency. Genetic gains should translate into productivity gains if returns to investments in breeding and impact are to be realized. The objective of this study was to estimate genetic gain for grain yield and key agronomic traits in pre-commercial and commercial maize varieties from public and private breeding programs tested in (i) national performance trials (NPT), (ii) era trial and, (iii) compare the trends with the national average. The study used (i) historical NPT data on 419 improved maize varieties evaluated in 23 trials at 6-8 locations each between 2008 and 2020, and (ii) data from an era trial of 54 maize hybrids released between 1999 and 2020. The NPT data was first analyzed using a mixed model and resulting estimate for each entry was regressed onto its first year of testing. Analysis was done over all entries, only entries from National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), or private seed companies. Estimated genetic gain was 2.25% or 81 kg ha -1 year -1 from the NPT analysis. A comparison of genetic trends by source indicated that CIMMYT entries had a gain of 1.98% year -1 or 106 kg ha -1 year -1 . In contrast, NARO and private sector maize entries recorded genetic gains of 1.30% year -1 (59 kg ha -1 year -1 ) and 1.71% year -1 (79 kg ha -1 year -1 ), respectively. Varieties from NARO and private sector showed comparable mean yields of 4.56 t ha -1 and 4.62 t ha -1 , respectively, while hybrids from CIMMYT had a mean of 5.37 t ha -1 . Era analysis indicated significant genetic gain of 1.69% year -1 or 55 kg ha -1 year -1 , while a significant national productivity gain of 1.48% year -1 (37 kg ha -1 year -1 ) was obtained. The study, thus, demonstrated the importance of public-private partnerships in development and delivery of new genetics to farmers in Uganda., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Asea, Kwemoi, Sneller, Kasozi, Das, Musundire, Makumbi, Beyene and Prasanna.)