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Background: This study examines the impact of participating in a seven-week football programme on the personal well-being of male asylum seekers residing in contingency accommodation in the UK., Methods: This repeated measures study included a cohort of participants who engaged in weekly football sessions and completed a well-being questionnaire (ONS4) over a continuous seven-week period. Longitudinal linear regression analysis using generalized estimating equations (GEE) was used to assess the relationship between personal well-being and weekly minutes of football participation (M1). A second model incorporating the total number of non-football activity sessions in the past week as a covariate was also implemented (M2)., Results: Of the 73 participants who completed the questionnaire, 23 responded twice or more across the study period and were subsequently included in the analysis. Results revealed that 2 h of football participation within 7 days significantly improved aspects of personal well-being when compared with no football participation, including improved life satisfaction, feeling life is worthwhile, and happiness. Both models demonstrated a shift from 'low' to 'medium' ONS4 categorical score. Anxiety levels remained unchanged regardless of participation and model., Conclusion: We provide important evidence on the potential benefits of football participation for promoting personal well-being among male asylum seekers residing in contingency accommodation., Competing Interests: The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:Dr Chris McManus reports financial support was provided by 10.13039/100014013UK Research and Innovation., (© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Perception of internal and external cues is an important determinant of pacing behaviour, but little is known about the capacity to attend to such cues as exercise intensity increases. This study investigated whether changes in attentional focus and recognition memory correspond with selected psychophysiological and physiological parameters during exhaustive cycling., Methods: Twenty male participants performed two laboratory ramped cycling tests beginning at 50 W and increasing by 0.25 W/s until volitional exhaustion. Ratings of perceived exertion, heart rate and respiratory gas exchange measures were recorded during the first test. During the second test, participants listened to a list of spoken words presented through headphones at a rate of one word every 4 s. Afterwards, their recognition memory for the word pool was measured., Results: Recognition memory performance was found to have strong negative correlations with perceived exertion ( p < 0.0001), percentage of peak power output ( p < 0.0001), percentage of heart rate reserve ( p < 0.0001), and percentage of peak oxygen uptake ( p < 0.0001)., Conclusions: The results show that, as the physiological and psychophysiological stress of cycling intensified, recognition memory performance deteriorated. This might be due to impairment of memory encoding of the spoken words as they were presented, or because of a diversion of attention away from the headphones, perhaps towards internal physiological sensations as interoceptive sources of attentional load increase with exercise intensity. Information processing models of pacing and performance need to recognise that an athlete's capacity to attend to and process external information is not constant, but changes with exercise intensity.

Background: The Rating of Fatigue (ROF) scale can measure changes in perceived fatigue in a variety of contexts., Objective: The aim of the present study was to translate and subsequently validate the ROF scale in the French language., Methods: The study was composed of three phases. Phase 1 involved a comprehensive translation, back-translation, and consolidation process in order to produce the French ROF scale. During phase 2, the face validity of the French ROF scale was assessed. A cohort of 60 native French speaking participants responded to a range of Likert scale items which probed the purposes of the ROF scale and what it is intended to measure. During phase 3, the convergent and divergent validity of the ROF scale was assessed during ramped cycling to exhaustion and 10 min of resting recovery., Results: The results from phase 1 demonstrated comparability and interpretability between the original and back-translated ROF scale. In phase 2, participants reported a high face validity, with a score of 3.48 ± 0.70 out of 4 when given the item probing whether the scale "measures fatigue". This score further improved (3.67 ± 0.57, P = 0.01) after participants read the accompanying instructions. Participants were able to distinguish the purposes of the scale for measuring fatigue rather than exertion. In phase 3, strong correlations were found between ROF and heart rate (HR) both during exercise (r = 0.91, P < 0.01) and recovery (r = 0.92, P < 0.01), while discriminant validity between ROF and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was found during recovery., Conclusion: The present study permits the applications of the ROF scale in the French language.

The intensity of exercise-induced pain (EIP) reflects the metabolic environment in the exercising muscle, so during endurance exercise, this may inform the intelligent regulation of work rate. Conversely, the acute debilitating effects of EIP on motor unit recruitment could impair the estimation of force produced by the muscle and impair judgement of current exercise intensity. This study investigated whether muscle pain that feels like EIP, administered via intramuscular injection of hypertonic saline, interferes with the ability to accurately reproduce torque in a muscle group relevant to locomotive exercise. On separate days, 14 participants completed an isometric torque reproduction task of the knee extensors. Participants were required to produce torque at 15% and 20% maximal voluntary isometric torque (MVIT), without visual feedback before (baseline), during (pain/no pain), and after (recovery) an injection of 0.9% isotonic saline (Control) or 5.8% hypertonic saline (Experimental) into the vastus lateralis of the right leg. An elevated reported intensity of pain, and a significantly increased variance in mean contraction torque at both 15% ( P = 0.049) and 20% ( P = 0.002) MVIT was observed in the Experimental compared to the Control condition. Both 15 and 20% target torques were performed at a similar pain intensity in the Experimental condition (15% MVIT: 4.2 ± 1.9; 20% MVIT: 4.5 ± 2.2; P > 0.05). These findings demonstrate that the increased muscle pain from the injection of hypertonic saline impeded accurate reproduction of knee extensor torque. These findings have implications for the detrimental impact of EIP on exercise regulation and endurance performance. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We provide novel data demonstrating that the presence of muscle pain interferes with estimations of torque produced by the knee extensors, which could impair judgment of work rate during endurance exercise. The novelty of our study is in the application of the hypertonic saline experimental model into a quadriceps muscle during short, submaximal isometric contractions at an intensity that provides a more translatable assessment of the impact of exercise-induced pain on work-rate regulation during whole body exercise.

Purpose: Increased nociceptive activity and the experience of exercise-induced pain (EIP) may contribute to fatigue during endurance exercise. To investigate this, a pain model that produces pain similar to EIP and decouples its relationship to exercise intensity is required. This study (1) compared the quality of pain caused by a hypertonic saline injection into the vastus lateralis in resting and exercise conditions, and (2) investigated whether this pain contributes to changes in time to task failure., Methods: On separate days, 18 participants completed a time to task failure at 20% maximal voluntary torque (MVT), a resting hypertonic saline intramuscular injection, and in a further three visits a time to task failure at 10% MVT following injection of isotonic saline, hypertonic saline or a control (no injection)., Results: In a subset of eligible participants (n = 12), the hypertonic saline combined with 10% MVT produced a qualitative experience of pain (assessed by the McGill Pain Questionnaire) that felt similar to EIP. 10% MVT with hypertonic saline significantly elevated pain intensity in the first 20% of the time to task failure and caused a significantly (P < 0.05) shorter time to task failure (448 ± 240 s) compared with the isotonic saline (605 ± 285 s) and control (514 ± 197 s) conditions., Conclusion: These findings demonstrate that hypertonic saline increases the intensity of pain during exercise, which results in a faster occurrence of exercise-induced fatigue. These results provide important evidence supporting pain as a limiting factor in endurance performance.

Purpose: The influence of interdependency between competitors on pacing decision-making and information-seeking behavior has been explored. This has been done by only altering instructions, and thereby action possibilities, while controlling environment (i.e., competitor behavior) and exercise task., Methods: Twelve participants performed a 4-km time trial on a Velotron cycle ergometer in a randomized, counterbalanced order alone with no virtual opponent (NO), against a virtual opponent with no restrictions (low athlete-opponent interdependency [OP-IND]), or against a virtual opponent who the participant was permitted to overtake only once during the trial (high athlete-opponent interdependency [OP-DEP]). Information-seeking behavior was evaluated using an SMI eye tracker. Differences in pacing, performance, and information-seeking behavior were examined using repeated-measures ANOVA (P < 0.05)., Results: Neither mean power output (NO, 298 ± 35 W; OP-IND, 297 ± 38 W; OP-DEP, 296 ± 37 W) nor finishing time (NO, 377.7 ± 17.4 s; OP-IND, 379.3 ± 19.5 s; OP-DEP, 378.5 ± 17.7 s) differed between experimental conditions. However, power output was lower in the first kilometer of OP-DEP compared with the other experimental conditions (NO, 332 ± 59 W; OP-IND, 325 ± 62 W; OP-DEP, 316 ± 58 W; both P < 0.05), and participants decided to wait longer before they overtook their opponent (OP-IND, 137 ± 130 s; OP-DEP, 255 ± 107 s; P = 0.040). Moreover, total fixation time spent on the avatar of the virtual opponent increased when participants were only allowed to overtake once (OP-IND, 23.3 ± 16.6 s; OP-DEP, 55.8 ± 32.7 s; P = 0.002)., Conclusion: A higher interdependency between athlete and opponent altered pacing behavior in terms of in-race adaptations based on opponent's behavior, and it induced an increased attentional focus on the virtual opponent. Thus, in the context of exercise regulation, attentional cues are likely to be used in an adaptive way according to their availability and situational relevance, consistent with a decision-making framework based on the interdependence of perception and action.

Introduction: A preceding article investigated the psychophysiological responses to falling behind a performance matched opponent. The following temporally linked cause-effect relationships were hypothesised: falling behind precedes deterioration in valence, deterioration in valence precedes development of an action crisis, experience of an action crisis precedes psychoneuroendocrinological distress response and non-adaptive distress response reduces conduciveness to high performance, thereby preceding performance decrement., Methods: In this article, we applied structural equation modelling to test the extent to which the observed data fit the hypothesised cause-effect relationships. A five-step procedure was applied to model the interrelationships between the major study variables in the hypothesised temporal order., Results: Significant linear relationships were found between all hypothesised predictor and outcome variable pairs (p<0.024). The dynamic change in valence was a significant mediator (p=0.011) as it explained 35% of the relationship between falling behind and action crisis. All hypothesised cause-effect relationships continued to be significant after controlling for performance, descriptor, training and perceived strain variables. The observed data fitted the hypothesised structural model well with excellent model fit indices throughout., Conclusion: We applied, tested and confirmed the hypothesised debilitative psychophysiological processes that unfold in response to falling behind a performance matched opponent. The main findings were: deterioration in valence mediated the relationship between falling behind and action crisis, the mindset shift associated with an action crisis predicted increased blood cortisol concentrations and non-adaptive blood cortisol concentrations predicted performance decrement. The findings point towards the crucial role of affective and cognitive modifiers in centrally regulated and goal-directed exercise behaviour., Competing Interests: Competing interests: AV and DM have no competing interests. TDN is the author of the books Lore of Running and Waterlogged and co-author of The Real Meal Revolution, Raising Superheroes and Challenging Beliefs. All royalties from the sales of The Real Meal Revolution and Raising Superheroes and related activities are donated to the Noakes Foundation, of which he is the chairman and which funds research on insulin resistance, diabetes and nutrition as directed by its Board of Directors. Money from the sale of other books is donated to the Tim and Marilyn Noakes Sports Science Research Trust, which funds the salary of a senior researcher at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. The research focuses on the study of skeletal muscle in African mammals with some overlap to the study of type 2 diabetes in carnivorous mammals and of the effects of (scavenged) sugar consumption on free-living (wild) baboons., (© Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2018. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.)

This exploratory study enhances previous research into green exercise and addresses a gap in the research by exploring the contribution of individual and combined senses in the recovery of mood and stress after a psychological stressor, whilst rigorously controlling exercise intensity. The hypotheses were: (i) recovery of mood and stress from a state of psychological stress would be greater following simulated green exercise compared to rest, (ii) green exercise would facilitate better recovery than exercise alone, (iii) these effects would remain 10 min following intervention, and (iv) visual stimuli alone would enhance recovery from a state of psychological stress compared to sound. Fifty participants were randomly assigned to one of five groups: REST, exercise, exercise with nature sounds, exercise with nature visual and exercise with nature sound and visual. An initial visit to obtain predicted peak power output values and to familiarize participants with the equipment being used was followed by a second visit, where participants experienced one test condition. Baseline measures of heart rate, blood pressure, total mood disturbance (TMD), and perceived stress were taken, before participants completed a stressor based on the Trier Social Stress test. Measures of heart rate and blood pressure were recorded in the last 30 s of the stressor to assess efficacy of the stressor. Immediately post stressor, measures of mood and perceived stress were taken followed by the intervention assigned (one of five described above). Measures of mood and perceived stress were taken again immediately post intervention and 10 min post intervention. Results showed that green exercise improved mood and stress scores more than exercise alone or REST. For both TMD and perceived stress, improvements in all simulated nature conditions were significantly improved compared to REST or exercise alone immediately post intervention. There were no significant changes 10 min post intervention in either mood or perceived stress compared to immediately post intervention values in any of the groups. This study suggests that environmental exercise settings including nature sounds, visual or both combined should be considered as important in the use of exercise as a therapeutic activity or recovery from acute psychological stress.

Purpose: The purpose of this experiment was to assess performance during repeated sprints utilizing self-selected recovery intervals in youth football (soccer) players at different stages of maturation., Methods: Quota sampling method was used to recruit 14 prepeak height velocity (PHV) and 14 post-PHV participants for the study (N = 28; age = 13 [0.9] y, stature = 162.5 [10.8] cm, mass = 50.2 [12.7] kg). Players performed repeated sprints comprising 10 × 30 m efforts under 2 experimental conditions: using 30-second and self-selected recovery intervals. Magnitude of effects for within- and between-group differences were reported using effect size (ES) statistics ± 90% confidence intervals and percentage differences., Results: The decline in sprint performance was likely lower in the pre-PHV compared with the post-PHV group during the standardized recovery trial (between-group difference = 37%; ES = 0.41 ± 0.51), and likely lower in the post-PHV group during the self-selected recovery trial (between-group difference = 50%; ES = 0.45 ± 0.54). Mean recovery duration was likely shorter in the pre-PHV compared with the post-PHV group during the self-selected recovery trial (between-group difference = 26.1%; ES = 0.47 ± 0.45)., Conclusion: This is the first study to show that during repeated sprints with self-selected recovery, pre-PHV children have an impaired ability to accurately interpret physical capabilities in the context of the task compared with post-PHV adolescents.

A three-dimensional framework of perceived fatigability emphasises the need to differentiate between the qualitatively distinct inputs of sensory-discriminatory, affective-motivational and cognitive-evaluative processes that shape the perceptual milieu during prolonged endurance exercise. This article reviews the framework's utility to better understand how cause-effect relationships come to be and how perception-action coupling underpins pacing behaviour and performance fatigability. Preliminary evidence supports the hypotheses that perceived strain plays a primary role in trajectory regulation of pacing behaviour, core affect plays a primary and mediatory role in behavioural performance regulation, and the mindset shift associated with an action crisis plays a primary role in the intensity dependent volitional self-regulatory control of conflicting motivational drives. The constructs hypothesised to underpin perceived fatigability are systematically linked, context-dependent, constraint-based, distinguishable and show proportional continuous interdependency. They are further interrelated with dynamic changes in pacing behaviour, performance fatigability and physiological disturbance. Appropriate measurement selections for the subordinate constructs perceived physical strain, perceived mental strain, valence, arousal, action crisis and flow state are discussed. To better understand the non-proportional discontinuous effects of fatigue on discrete shifts in thought states and mindsets, non-linear dynamical systems theory is introduced as an unbiased overarching theory of governing principles in the temporal evolution of complex systems. This provides the opportunity to discuss the bio-psycho-social fatigue phenomenon from a dynamical and holistic perspective. The proposed framework offers a sophisticated alternative to the Gestalt concept of perceived exertion and comprehensively accounts for the psychophysiological processes that determine pacing behaviour and performance. It has the potential to enrich theory development and facilitate a deeper understanding of the psychophysiological regulation of goal-directed exercise behaviour.

Introduction: A three-dimensional framework of centrally regulated and goal-directed exercise behaviour emphasised the integration of distinct sensory-discriminatory, affective-motivational and cognitive-evaluative dimensions that underpin perceived fatigability. This study aimed to capture the complex interdependencies and temporal dynamics in these processes, their interrelations with observed pacing behaviour, performance and biochemical variables as well as their performance level- and competition outcome-dependent variances., Methods: Twenty-three cyclists of distinct performance level categories engaged in individual and head-to-head competition time trials against a performance-matched opponent. Sensory, affective and cognitive processes were respectively assessed with the constructs perceived physical strain and perceived mental strain, valence and felt arousal underpinning core affect and action crisis characterised by a shift from an implemental to a deliberative mindset., Results: Performance level- and competition outcome-dependent variances and differential temporal dynamics in constructs were associated with alterations in pacing behaviour, performance and physiological disturbance. Perceived physical and mental strain were primarily associated with observed pacing behaviour as necessary to align planned behaviour with current physiological state. Valence and arousal were primarily associated with differential responses in performance regulation. The mindset shift associated with an action crisis was primarily associated with non-adaptive, psycho-neuro-endocrinological distress response., Conclusion: The proposed constructs are interdependent in a nonlinear dynamic fashion, context dependent, constraint based, distinguishable by well-trained cyclists and interrelated with observed pacing behaviour, performance and physiological disturbance. The proposed framework provides a more comprehensive alternative to the Gestalt concept of perceived exertion and more completely accounts for centrally regulated and goal-directed exercise behaviour.

The Central Governor Model (CGM) ignited a paradigm shift from concepts of catastrophic failure towards central regulation of exercise performance. However, the CGM has focused on the central integration of afferent feedback in homeostatic control. Accordingly, it neglected the important role of volitional self-regulatory control and the integration of affective components inherently attached to all physiological cues. Another limitation is the large reliance on the Gestalt phenomenon of perceived exertion. Thus, progress towards a comprehensive multidimensional model of perceived fatigability and exercise regulation is needed. Drawing on Gate Control Theory of pain, we propose a three-dimensional framework of centrally regulated and goal-directed exercise behaviour, which differentiates between sensory, affective and cognitive processes shaping the perceptual milieu during exercise. We propose that: (A) perceived mental strain and perceived physical strain are primary determinants of pacing behaviour reflecting sensory-discriminatory processes necessary to align planned behaviour with current physiological state, (B) core affect plays a primary and mediatory role in exercise and performance regulation, and its underlying two dimensions hedonicity and arousal reflect affective-motivational processes triggering approach and avoidance behaviour, and (C) the mindset-shift associated with an action crisis plays a primary role in volitional self-regulatory control reflecting cognitive-evaluative processes between further goal-pursuit and goal-disengagement. The proposed framework has the potential to enrich theory development in centrally regulated and goal-directed exercise behaviour by emphasising the multidimensional dynamic processes underpinning perceived fatigability and provides a practical outline for investigating the complex interplay between the psychophysiological determinants of pacing and performance during prolonged endurance exercise., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2018. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.)

Background: "Hitting the wall" (HTW) can be understood as a psychophysiological stress process characterised by (A) discrete and poignant onset, (B) dynamic interplay between physiological, affective, motivational, cognitive, and behavioural systems, and (C) unintended alteration of pace and performance. A preceding companion article investigated the psychophysiological responses to 20-km self-paced treadmill time trials after producing exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) via a standardised muscle-lengthening contraction protocol., Methods: A 5-step procedure was applied determining the extent to which the observed data fit the hypothesised cause-effect relationships. Running with EIMD negatively impacts performance fatigability via (A) amplified physiological responses and a non-adaptive distress response and (B) deterioration in perceived fatigability: increase in perceived physical strain precedes decrease in valence, which in turn precedes increase in action crisis, eventually dissolving the initially aspired performance goal., Results: First, haematological indicators of EIMD predicted increased blood cortisol concentration, which in turn predicted increased performance fatigability. Second, perceived physical strain explained 44% of the relationship between haematological indicators of EIMD and valence, which in turn predicted increased action crisis, which in turn predicted increased performance fatigability. The observed data fitted the hypothesised dual-pathway model well with good model-fit indices throughout., Conclusions: The hypothesised interrelationships between physiological strain, perception, and heuristic and deliberative decision-making processes in self-regulated and goal-directed exercise behaviour were applied, tested, and confirmed: amplified physiological strain and non-adaptive distress response as well as strain-perception-thinking-action coupling impact performance fatigability. The findings provide novel insights into the psychophysiological processes that underpin the phenomenological experience of HTW and alteration in pacing behaviour and performance.

Background: Locomotor muscle fatigue (LMMF) and exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) are common conditions experienced during long-distance running due to the pooled effect of mechanical and metabolic strain on the locomotor muscles. However, little is known about the instant effects of combined LMMF and EIMD on pacing behaviour and performance during the decisive final stages of 'real-world' long-distance running events., Methods: Twenty-two highly trained runners (11 females) completed two maximal self-paced 20-km treadmill time trials in a counterbalanced crossover design: (A) in a tapered condition and (B) with LMMF and EIMD. Indicators of muscle damage, muscle metabolic strain, and endocrinological stress were assessed to investigate the physiological effects, and a three-dimensional framework of perceived fatigability was applied to investigate the perceptual effects of running with LMMF and EIMD on performance fatigability., Results: LMMF and EIMD caused restrictions in work capacity and medium increases in blood leucocyte and neutrophil count, interleukin-6, and cortisol concentrations, collectively constituting a physiological milieu likely not conducive to high performance. LMMF and EIMD further caused large increases in perceived physical strain and large decreases in valence as well as large increases and decreases in action crisis and flow state, respectively., Conclusions: Under the constraint of amplified physical duress, findings are suggestive of heuristic and rational antecedents in the goal disengagement process. Dynamic changes in physiological and perceptual effects of LMMF and EIMD are hypothesised to underpin the observed alterations in pacing behaviour and performance fatigability during long-distance running. The applied three-dimensional framework provides a more comprehensive understanding of strain-perception-thinking-action coupling in centrally regulated and goal-directed exercise behaviour.

Purpose: To use eye-tracking technology to directly compare information acquisition behavior of experienced and novice cyclists during a self-paced, 10-mile (16.1 km) time trial (TT)., Method: Two groups of novice (n = 10) and experienced cyclists (n = 10) performed a 10-mile self-paced TT on two separate occasions during which a number of feedback variables (speed, distance, power output, cadence, HR, and time) were projected within their view. A large RPE scale was also presented next to the projected information and participants. Participants were fitted with a head-mounted eye tracker and HR monitor., Results: Experienced cyclists performed both TT quicker than novices (F1,18 = 6.8, P = 0.018) during which they primarily looked at speed (9 of 10 participants), whereas novices primarily looked at distance (6 of 10 participants). Experienced cyclists looked at primary information for longer than novices across the whole TT (24.5% ± 4.2% vs 34.2% ± 6.1%; t18 = 4.2; P < 0.001) and less frequently than novices during the last quarter of the TT (49 ± 19 vs 80 ± 32; t18 = -2.6; P = 0.009). The most common combination of primary and secondary information looked at by experienced cyclists was speed and distance, respectively. Looking at 10 different primary-secondary feedback permutations, the novices were less consistent than the experienced cyclists in their information acquisition behavior., Conclusions: This study challenges the importance placed on knowledge of the endpoint to pacing in previous models, especially for experienced cyclists for whom distance feedback was looked at secondary to, but in conjunction with, information about speed. Novice cyclists have a greater dependence on distance feedback, which they look at for shorter and more frequent periods than the experienced cyclists. Experienced cyclists are more selective and consistent in attention to feedback during TT cycling.

The extent to which athletic pacing decisions are made consciously or subconsciously is a prevailing issue. In this article we discuss why the one-dimensional conscious-subconscious debate that has reigned in the pacing literature has suppressed our understanding of the multidimensional processes that occur in pacing decisions. How do we make our decisions in real-life competitive situations? What information do we use and how do we respond to opponents? These are questions that need to be explored and better understood, using smartly designed experiments. The paper provides clarity about key conscious, preconscious, subconscious and unconscious concepts, terms that have previously been used in conflicting and confusing ways. The potential of dual process theory in articulating multidimensional aspects of intuitive and deliberative decision-making processes is discussed in the context of athletic pacing along with associated process-tracing research methods. In attempting to refine pacing models and improve training strategies and psychological skills for athletes, the dual-process framework could be used to gain a clearer understanding of (1) the situational conditions for which either intuitive or deliberative decisions are optimal; (2) how intuitive and deliberative decisions are biased by things such as perception, emotion and experience; and (3) the underlying cognitive mechanisms such as memory, attention allocation, problem solving and hypothetical thought.

Purpose: Depression and reduced exercise capacity are risk factors for poor prognosis in patients with heart disease, but the relationship between the 2 is unclear. We assessed the relationship between depressive symptoms and exercise capacity in patients with heart disease., Methods: PubMed, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, and ProQuest databases were browsed for English-language studies published from January 2000 to September 2013. Studies including adult patients with coronary artery disease, heart failure, congenital heart disease, and implantable cardioverter defibrillator, reporting correlation between a depression scale and exercise capacity ((Equation is included in full-text article.)O2peak, peak watts, estimated metabolic equivalents, and incremental shuttle walk test distance), as well as studies from which such a correlation could be calculated and provided by the authors, were included. Correlation coefficients (CCs) were converted to Fischer z values, and the analysis was performed using a random-effects model. Then, summary effects and 95% CIs were converted back to CCs., Results: Fifty-nine studies (25 733 participants) were included. Depressive symptoms were inversely correlated to exercise capacity (CC = -0.15; 95% CI, -0.17 to -0.12). Heterogeneity was significant (I = 64%; P < .001). There was no evidence of publication bias (Fail-safe N = 4681; Egger test: P = .06; Kendall test: P = .29)., Conclusions: Patients with heart disease and elevated depressive symptoms may tend to have reduced exercise capacity, and vice versa. This finding has clinical and prognostic implications. It also encourages research on the effects of improving depression on exercise capacity, and vice versa. The effects of potential moderators need to be explored.

Purpose: To explore pacing behavior and tactical positioning during the shorter 500- and 1000-m short-track competitions., Methods: Lap times and intermediate rankings of elite 500- and 1000-m short-track-skating competitors were collected over the 2012-13 season. First, lap times were analyzed using a MANOVA, and for each lap, differences between sex, race type, final ranking, and stage of competition were determined. Second, Kendall tau-b correlations were used to assess relationships between intermediate and final rankings. In addition, intermediate rankings of the winner of each race were examined., Results: Top-placed athletes appeared faster than bottom-placed athletes in every lap in the 500-m, while in the 1000-m no differences were found until the final 4 laps (P < .05). Correlations between intermediate and final rankings were already high at the beginning stages of the 50-m (lap 1: r = .59) but not for the 1000-m (lap 1: r = .21)., Conclusions: Although 500- and 1000-m short-track races are both relatively short, fundamental differences in pacing behavior and tactical positioning were found. A fast-start strategy seems to be optimal for 500-m races, while the crucial segment in 1000-m races seems to be from the 6th lap to the finish line (ie, after ± 650 m). These findings provide evidence to suggest that athletes balance between choosing an energetically optimal profile and the tactical and positional benefits that play a role when riding against an opponent, as well as contributing to developing novel insights in exploring athletic behavior when racing against opponents.

Background: Uptake and adherence to cardiac rehabilitation (CR) are low, and a contributing factor to this may be the practical difficulties of providing a tailored CR environment suited to individual preferences and needs., Objective: The aim of this study was to develop and test a short questionnaire that CR practitioners can use to understand individual patient need and tailor support accordingly., Methods: A conceptual framework of engagement in CR was derived from a comprehensive literature review and the content analysis of semistructured interviews with 15 CR patients. The conceptual framework was used to construct the first version of the Cardiac Rehabilitation Inventory (CRI), which comprised 42 items. Responses on the CRI were measured using a 5-point Likert scale. The CRI was administered to 380 phase III and IV CR patients, and factor analysis (FA) was used to identify salient CR engagement factors., Results: The simplest structure found using FA was three 6-item subscales that all had good levels of internal consistency (Cronbach's α) and were labeled (a) outcome anxiety, α = .726; (2) process anxiety, α = .724; and (3) autonomy, α = .653. The 3-factor CRI model was verified using confirmatory FA (CMin/df = 3.2, root-mean-square error of approximation = 0.073). Attenders were found to have higher levels of outcome anxiety than nonattenders (P < .001), and precontemplator nonattenders were found to have lower autonomy compared with attenders (P < .001). Standard multiple regression analysis indicated outcome anxiety was a strong predictor of CR intentions (r = 0.716), followed by autonomy (r = 0.110) and process anxiety (r = 0.031)., Conclusions: The CRI is a reliable method of measuring CR outcome anxiety, process anxiety, and autonomy. These CRI measurements provide rehabilitation practitioners with valuable information that can help provide individual tailored support.

This study examined the relationship between mood and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during a simulated multiple-lap time trial (MLTT). Nineteen male cyclists performed a MLTT consisting of four 9.9 km laps, each lap with a gradient ranging from 0 to 10 %. Mood as measured by the Profile of Mood States Questionnaire (POMS) and perceived exertion as measured by the Borg CR100 scale (RPE) were obtained at the end of each lap. A categorical multiple regressive model, having median of POMS subscales as independent variables, was obtained to explain the variance in median RPE responses. Increases in POMS fatigue scores and decreases in POMS vigour scores were observed throughout the MLTT (P < 0.001). A linear increase in RPE during the MLTT was also observed (P < 0.001). POMS fatigue subscale scores accounted for 88 % of the variance in RPE during the MLTT (R(2) = 0.88, P = 0.002), and no other POMS subscale improved the final predictive model. With the exception of fatigue these results suggest that most aspects of mood do not have a discernable effect on RPE during a MLTT. The rate of increase in RPE can predict the MLTT endpoint.

Background: Depression symptom severity and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) are significant predictors of mortality and disability. However, the relationship between the two is unclear., Objective: This meta-analysis assessed the relationship between depression symptom severity and CRF in healthy and depressed adults (aged 18 years and over)., Search Methods: The PubMed, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar and ProQuest databases were browsed for relevant English-language studies published from January 2000 to August 2014., Selection Criteria: Studies reporting a correlation between a depression scale and maximum oxygen consumption (VO2peak), as well as studies from the data of which such a correlation could be calculated, were included in this analysis., Data Analysis: Correlation coefficients (CCs) were converted to Fisher's z values, and the analysis was performed using a random-effects model. Then, summary effects and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were converted back to CCs., Results: Sixteen studies (totalling 4039 participants) were included in this analysis. A modest correlation between depression symptom severity and CRF was found (CC -0.16, 95% CI -0.21 to -0.10), appearing stronger in male participants (CC - 0.22, 95% CI -0.26 to -0.18) than in female participants (CC -0.12, 95% CI -0.19 to -0.05; p = 0.01). There was no difference in the summary effect between healthy and depressed adults (p = 0.43). Heterogeneity was moderate (I2 = 33%; p = 0.09)., Conclusions: Depression symptom severity is inversely correlated with CRF, and this correlation is stronger in men than in women. Clinical and prognostic implications of the correlation are discussed. These findings should stimulate further research on the effects of treating one variable on the other.

This study's aim was to identify the relative contribution of sight, sound and smell to the Green Exercise effect. It was hypothesised that visual occlusion while exercising in a natural environment would have the greatest diminishing effect on perceived exertion and mood compared to auditory and olfactory occlusion. Twenty-nine healthy participants were randomly assigned to one of the three groups: visual (n = 10), auditory (n = 9) and olfactory occlusion (n = 10). Each performed six, 5-min bouts of exercise alternating between full sensory and occlusion. Rate of perceived exertion (RPE), heart rate (HR) and mood were recorded at the end of each bout. Sensory-occlusion increased mood, RPE and HR; effects were strongest when sounds were blocked but virtually absent when vision was blocked. During sensory occlusion, mood changes were characterised by increased Fatigue and Confusion, and reduced Vigour. Reductions in Tension and Vigour and increases in Fatigue were found during full sensory exercise, consistent with previous research findings.

Purpose: The objective of this study is to examine risk taking and risk perception associations with perceived exertion, pacing, and performance in athletes., Methods: Two experiments were conducted in which risk perception was assessed using the domain-specific risk taking (DOSPERT) scale in 20 novice cyclists (experiment 1) and 32 experienced ultramarathon runners (experiment 2). In experiment 1, participants predicted their pace and then performed a 5-km maximum effort cycling time trial on a calibrated Kingcycle mounted bicycle. Split times and perceived exertion were recorded every kilometer. In experiment 2, each participant predicted their split times before running a 100-km ultramarathon. Split times and perceived exertion were recorded at seven checkpoints. In both experiments, higher and lower risk perception groups were created using median split of DOSPERT scores., Results: In experiment 1, pace during the first kilometer was faster among lower risk perceivers compared with higher risk perceivers (t(18) = 2.0, P = 0.03) and faster among higher risk takers compared with lower risk takers (t(18) = 2.2, P = 0.02). Actual pace was slower than predicted pace during the first kilometer in both the higher risk perceivers (t(9) = -4.2, P = 0.001) and lower risk perceivers (t(9) = -1.8, P = 0.049). In experiment 2, pace during the first 36 km was faster among lower risk perceivers compared with higher risk perceivers (t(16) = 2.0, P = 0.03). Irrespective of risk perception group, actual pace was slower than predicted pace during the first 18 km (t(16) = 8.9, P < 0.001) and from 18 to 36 km (t(16) = 4.0, P < 0.001). In both experiments, there was no difference in performance between higher and lower risk perception groups., Conclusions: Initial pace is associated with an individual's perception of risk, with low perceptions of risk being associated with a faster starting pace. Large differences between predicted and actual pace suggest that the performance template lacks accuracy, perhaps indicating greater reliance on momentary pacing decisions rather than preplanned strategy.

Objective: To determine whether active school travel is associated with muscular fitness, which is an emerging marker of youth health., Methods: Handgrip strength, vertical jump and vertical jump peak power were measured in n=6829 English schoolchildren (53% males, age 12.9 ± 1.2 years) between 2007 and 2011. Participants were grouped according to self-reported habitual school travel modality., Results: Cyclists had greater handgrip strength than passive travelers. Vertical jump height was greater in walkers and cyclists compared with passive travelers. Jump peak power was also higher in walkers than in the passive travel group. Compared with passive travelers, cyclists had a higher (age, sex and BMI-adjusted) likelihood of good handgrip strength (OR 1.42, 95%CI;1.14-1.76) and walkers were more likely to have good measures for vertical jump peak power (OR 1.14, 95%CI;1.00-1.29). Cyclists' likelihood of having good handgrip strength remained significantly higher when adjusted for physical activity (OR 1.29, 95%CI;1.08-1.46)., Conclusion: Muscular fitness differs according to school travel habits. Cycling is independently associated with better handgrip strength perhaps due to the physical demands of the activity. Better muscular fitness may provide another health-related reason to encourage active school travel., (Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the effect of variations in optic flow on perceived and actual running pace and RPE., Methods: Twelve male moderately trained competitive runners performed a self-paced 5-km running reference time trial followed by a three 5-km running self-paced trials under different optic flow conditions (RNORM = actual running speed, RSLOW = actual speed - 25%, and RFAST = actual speed + 25%). Participants were asked to self-report RPE when they thought they had reached each kilometer., Results: There was no difference in the 5-km completion times (P > 0.05) or actual pace (P > 0.05) between the optic flow conditions. A greater distance was covered between the perceived kilometer points during RSLOW compared with RNORM (P < 0.01) and RFAST (P < 0.01). RPE (normalized for running distance) was lower during RSLOW compared with RNORM (P < 0.01) and RFAST (P < 0.01)., Conclusions: Different rates of optic flow lead to an apparent compression or elongation of perceived distance during running, with slow optic flow resulting in an increased ratio of perceived to actual running distance. Pacing was not different in the slow optic flow condition, despite lower perceived exertion, which is contrary to the predictions of the RPE template model, hazard scores, and estimated time limits.

Athletes anticipatorily set and continuously adjust pacing strategies before and during events to produce optimal performance. Self-regulation ensures maximal effort is exerted in correspondence with the end point of exercise, while preventing physiological changes that are detrimental and disruptive to homeostatic control. The integration of feedforward and feedback information, together with the proposed brain's performance modifiers is said to be fundamental to this anticipatory and continuous regulation of exercise. The manipulation of central, regulatory internal and external stimuli has been a key focus within deception research, attempting to influence the self-regulation of exercise and induce improvements in performance. Methods of manipulating performance modifiers such as unknown task end point, deceived duration or intensity feedback, self-belief, or previous experience create a challenge within research, as although they contextualize theoretical propositions, there are few ecological and practical approaches which integrate theory with practice. In addition, the different methods and measures demonstrated in manipulation studies have produced inconsistent results. This review examines and critically evaluates the current methods of how specific centrally controlled performance modifiers have been manipulated, within previous deception studies. From the 31 studies reviewed, 10 reported positive effects on performance, encouraging future investigations to explore the mechanisms responsible for influencing pacing and consequently how deceptive approaches can further facilitate performance. The review acts to discuss the use of expectation manipulation not only to examine which methods of deception are successful in facilitating performance but also to understand further the key components used in the regulation of exercise and performance.

Successful participation in competitive endurance activities requires continual regulation of muscular work rate in order to maximise physiological performance capacities, meaning that individuals must make numerous decisions with regards to the muscular work rate selected at any point in time. Decisions relating to the setting of appropriate goals and the overall strategic approach to be utilised are made prior to the commencement of an event, whereas tactical decisions are made during the event itself. This review examines current theories of decision-making in an attempt to explain the manner in which regulation of muscular work is achieved during athletic activity. We describe rational and heuristic theories, and relate these to current models of regulatory processes during self-paced exercise in an attempt to explain observations made in both laboratory and competitive environments. Additionally, we use rational and heuristic theories in an attempt to explain the influence of the presence of direct competitors on the quality of the decisions made during these activities. We hypothesise that although both rational and heuristic models can plausibly explain many observed behaviours in competitive endurance activities, the complexity of the environment in which such activities occur would imply that effective rational decision-making is unlikely. However, at present, many proposed models of the regulatory process share similarities with rational models. We suggest enhanced understanding of the decision-making process during self-paced activities is crucial in order to improve the ability to understand regulation of performance and performance outcomes during athletic activity.

The aim of an optimal pacing strategy during exercise is to enhance performance whilst ensuring physiological limits are not surpassed, which has been shown to result in a metabolic reserve at the end of the exercise. There has been debate surrounding the theoretical models that have been proposed to explain how pace is regulated, with more recent research investigating a central control of exercise regulation. Deception has recently emerged as a common, practical approach to manipulate key variables during exercise. There are a number of ways in which deception interventions have been designed, each intending to gain particular insights into pacing behaviour and performance. Deception methodologies can be conceptualised according to a number of dimensions such as deception timing (prior to or during exercise), presentation frequency (blind, discontinuous or continuous) and type of deception (performance, biofeedback or environmental feedback). However, research evidence on the effects of deception has been perplexing and the use of complex designs and varied methodologies makes it difficult to draw any definitive conclusions about how pacing strategy and performance are affected by deception. This review examines existing research in the area of deception and pacing strategies, and provides a critical appraisal of the different methodological approaches used to date. It is hoped that this analysis will inform the direction and methodology of future investigations in this area by addressing the mechanisms through which deception impacts upon performance and by elucidating the potential application of deception techniques in training and competitive settings.

This study examined the effect of low- and high-intensity running on cognitive thoughts (an individual's "inner dialogue") and its relationship to ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). Cognitive thoughts and RPE of eight runners were collected during a 40-min. treadmill run at either a low (50% peak running speed) or a high (70% peak running speed) exercise intensity. Runners were asked to place their thoughts into one of 10 themed categories, which incorporated a broad association/dissociation classification (Schomer, 1986, 1987). At a low intensity and RPE (6-10), runners reported more dissociative thoughts, while at a high intensity and RPE (16-20) they reported more associative thoughts. Further, although the runners may report a particular RPE, the inner dialogue and description of perceived exertion and fatigue may be markedly different. These findings suggest that an athlete's "internal dialogue" is intensity dependent, and may relate to the more urgent need to self-monitor physical changes and sensations during high-intensity running.

Effective regulation of pace enables the majority of runners to complete competitive endurance events without mishap. However, some runners do experience exercise-induced collapse associated with postural hypotension, which in rare cases results from life-threatening conditions such as cardiac disorders, cerebral events, heat stroke and hyponatraemia. Despite the experience of either catastrophic system failure or extreme peripheral muscle fatigue, some runners persist in attempting to reach the finish line, and this often results in a sequence of dynamic changes in posture and gait that we have termed the 'Foster collapse positions'. The initial stage involves an unstable gait and the runner assumes the 'Early Foster' collapse position with hips slightly flexed and their head lowered. This unstable gait further degrades into a shuffle referred to as the 'Half Foster' collapse position characterized by hip flexion of approximately 90° with the trunk and head parallel to the ground. At this point, the muscles of postural support and the co-ordination of propulsion begin to be compromised. If the condition worsens, the runner will fall to the ground and assume the 'Full Foster' collapse position, which involves crawling forwards on knees and elbows towards the finish line, with their trunk angled such that the head is at a lower angle than the hips. Upon reaching the finish line, or sometimes before that, the runner may collapse and remain prone until recovering either with or without assistance or medical treatment. The Foster collapse positions are indicative of a final, likely primordial, protective mechanism designed to attenuate postural hypotension, cardiac 'pump' insufficiency or cerebral blood flow deficiency. Continuing to attempt to reach the finish line in this impaired state is also perhaps indicative of a high psychological drive or a variety of neurological and psychological pathologies such as diminished sensitivity to interoceptive feedback, unrealistic situational appraisal or extreme motivational drives. A better understanding of the physiological, neurological and psychological antecedents of the Foster collapse sequence remains an important issue with practical implications for runner safety and theoretical understanding of collapses during exercise.

Purpose: To compare pacing and performance of schoolchildren between running tasks where the end point was defined in units of either distance or time., Methods: Thirty-eight schoolchildren (age = 12.6 ± 0.5 yr, mass = 46.2 ± 7.5 kg, stature = 150 ± 7 cm) first performed a best-effort 750-m running task on a 150-m running track. The schoolchildren were split into two groups, matched for sex, age, and running performance, before completing the second running trial. One group repeated the 750-m running task (distance-distance group), whereas the other completed a running task to a time that had been matched to their previous 750-m performance (distance-time group). Pace was measured every 10% segment throughout each run., Results: No difference between trials in average running speed was found among the distance-distance group (13.64 ± 1.59 vs. 13.68 ± 1.62 km·h(-1), P > 0.05); however, the distance-time group were slower during the time task compared with during the distance task (13.84 ± 1.61 vs. 13.37 ± 1.57 km·h(-1), P < 0.005). There was no difference in pacing pattern between trials among the distance-distance group (P > 0.05), but the distance-time group exhibited a slower overall slower pace with no end spurt (P < 0.0001). During the time task, children looked at their watches more frequently the nearer they got to the end point (ρ = 0.933, P < 0.0001)., Conclusions: Schoolchildren find it easier to use spatial cues during a pacing task compared with temporal cues. Running pace in all trials followed a classic U-shaped pattern; however, lap-by-lap oscillations in pacing substrategies were also evident, which may be a psychological coping strategy.

Positive effects of green exercise on physical and psychological wellbeing have been found, yet little is known about the underlying cognitive mechanisms responsible for such effects. The purpose of this visual sensation study was to establish the extent to which the color green, as a primitive visual feature of many natural environments, contributes to the green exercise effect. Fourteen participants performed three moderate-intensity 5-min cycling tasks (50% peak power output) while watching video footage of a rural cycling course that simulated cycling through a real natural environment. The three randomly counter-balanced video conditions were unedited (V(GREEN)), achromatic (V(GRAY)) or red filter (V(RED)). Lower total mood disturbance and ratings of perceived exertion were found during the V(GREEN) compared to V(GRAY) and V(RED). Feelings of anger were higher after V(RED) compared to the other conditions. Feelings of tension, depression, fatigue, vigor, and confusion did not differ among conditions. This is the first study to show that the color green, as a primitive feature of visual sensation, has a contributory effect toward positive green exercise outcomes.

This study examined the effect of introducing either a male or female observer on the ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and affect of male runners during a moderate intensity running task. 10 moderately active men completed three 20-min. moderate intensity running trials at 60% of their peak treadmill running speed. Each participant completed three trials in random order: control, male-observed, and female-observed, where either the male or female observer joined the trial after 10 min. of the trial had elapsed, during which RPE and affect were monitored. The introduction of a female observer caused a significant decrease in RPE, whereas the introduction of a male observer caused a significant increase in RPE compared to the control trial. Affect was higher in the presence of both a male and female observer compared to control. It was concluded that there is a social, interpersonal, psychological dimension to RPE during exercise.

Optic flow on the retina creates a perception of a person's movement relative to their surroundings. This study investigated the effect of optic flow on perceived exertion during cycling. Fifteen participants completed a 20-km reference cycling time trail in the fastest possible time followed by three randomly counterbalanced 20-km cycling trials. Optic flow, via projected video footage of a cycling course, either represented actual speed (TTNORM) or was varied by -15% (TTSLOW) and +15% (TTFAST). During TTSLOW, power output and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), measured every 4 km, were lower during TTSLOW compared with TTNORM and TTFAST. There were no differences in heart rate or cadence. This study is the first to show that different rates of optic flow influence perceived exertion during cycling, with slower optic flow being associated with lower RPE and higher power output.

Purpose: Schoolchildren who cycle to school have higher cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) than those who are driven or use public transport. The purpose of this study was to determine whether recreational cycling is similarly associated with CRF., Methods: Participants were 5578 (54% males) English schoolchildren (10.0-15.9 yr). All reported frequency of recreational cycling events via 7-d recall. Responses were categorized as follows: "noncyclists" = 0, "occasional cyclists" = 1-4, or "regular cyclists" = 5+ (times per week). CRF was assessed using the 20-m shuttle run test with performance classified as "fit" or "unfit" based on FITNESSGRAM standards., Results: Overall, 26% of males and 46% of females were noncyclists. Compared with noncyclists, the 40% of males and 42% of females classified as occasional cyclists were more likely to be fit (males: odds ratio (OR) = 1.30, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.07-1.59; females: OR = 1.41, 95% CI = 1.13-1.76). Regular cyclists (34% males and 12% females) had a greater likelihood still of being classified as fit (males: OR = 1.58, 95% CI = 1.29-1.95; females: OR = 1.55, 95% CI = 1.09-2.20). No odds remained significant after adjusting for physical activity. Removal of participants who cycled to school had little overall effect on the likelihood of being classified as being fit., Conclusions: Previous research has focused only on young people's commuter cycling habits, at the expense of the more common activity of recreational cycling. Recreational cycling may provide an alternative target for interventions to increase physical activity and improve CRF youth. Recreational cycling could potentially serve as a way to gain cycling confidence and establish habits that act as precursors to commuter cycling.

Purpose: The study's purpose was to examine differences in pacing strategy between schoolchildren of different age, gender, and stage of cognitive development., Methods: Schoolchildren (n = 106) from four age groups (5-6, 8-9, 11-12, and 14 yr) participated in this study. Each schoolchild completed four conservation tasks to evaluate his or her Piagetian stage of cognitive development. Each schoolchild then performed a best-effort running task on a 150-m running track that was video recorded to analyze pace at 5% increments. The length of the run was varied for each age group to ensure that all schoolchildren were running for approximately 4 min (5-6 yr = 450 m, 8-9 yr = 600 m, 11-12 yr = 750 m, and 14 yr = 900 m)., Results: Differences in pacing strategy were found between schoolchildren of different age (P < 0.0001), gender (P < 0.0001), and cognitive development (P < 0.0001). Pacing differences were also found between age groups after controlling for cognitive development (P < 0.001), between cognitive abilities after controlling for age (P < 0.01), and between genders after controlling for both age (P < 0.0001) and cognitive ability (P < 0.0001)., Conclusions: Younger schoolchildren with less advanced cognitive development exhibited a negative pacing strategy indicating an inability to anticipate exercise demand. Older schoolchildren at a more advanced stage of cognitive development exhibited a more conservative U-shaped pacing strategy characterized by faster running speeds during the first 15% and last 20% of the run. Anticipatory pacing strategy seems to be related to both the age and cognitive development of schoolchildren.

Objective: The authors examined the changing patterns of mood before and after an Ironman triathlon, and the relationships between expected performance outcomes, perception of effort and pacing., Design: Twelve participants in the 2008 Ironman Austria triathlon competition were studied before, during and after the event. Each participant completed measures of mood, anxiety and perceived exertion, while pacing was calculated from official race timings at various points on the course., Results: Positive correlations were found between distance covered and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during each of the individual disciplines, and also between RPE and the percentage of overall race time completed (r=0.826, p<0.001). A negative correlation was found between average speed and distance covered during the run segment (r=-0.911, p<0.005) with pace gradually declining. Differences occurred in the profile of mood states mood subscales of tension and fatigue between the baseline, prerace and postrace trials. Somatic anxiety was higher before the race compared with baseline measures., Discussion: RPE followed a linear progression of RPE during each discipline followed by a re-setting of the perception of effort at the start of the next discipline. The increase in RPE for the entire event followed a linear increase. The linear decline in run pace is consistent with a recent model in which expected RPE is used to modulate pacing. Anxiety and mood responses of participants in this study indicate that the emotional response of athletes before and after ultra-endurance exercise is closely aligned with their conscious thoughts.

Objectives: To examine soft tissue release (STR) as an intervention for delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS)., Design: A mixed-subjects experimental design was used. Participants performed 4 x 20 eccentric elbow extensions at 80% of 1RM. Participants received either STR (50%) or no treatment (50%). DOMS measurements were taken before the elbow extensions and at 0, 24, and 48 h afterwards., Setting: The study was conducted at the University of Essex exercise physiology laboratory., Participants: Twenty male participants, unaccustomed to strength conditioning, completed the study., Main Outcome Measures: DOMS was evaluated using relaxed joint angle (RJA), active range of motion (AROM), passive range of motion (PROM), and arm girth measurements. Soreness ratings were measured using a 100 mm visual analogue scale (VAS)., Results: In both conditions there were post-DOMS task increases in VAS ratings (p < 0.0001) and arm girths (p < 0.0001), and decreases in RJA (p < 0.0001), AROM (p < 0.0001), and PROM (p < 0.0001). STR group VAS scores were higher immediately (p < 0.01) and 48 h after treatment (p < 0.005). There were no other between-group differences and none of the measurements returned to baseline levels by 48 h., Conclusions: STR exacerbates the DOMS sensation yet does not seem to improve the rate of recovery during the first 48 h.