Search

Endocrine disrupting chemicals, among them many pesticides, alter the normal functioning of the endocrine system of both wildlife and humans at very low concentration levels. Therefore, the importance of method development for their analysis in food and the environment is increasing. This also covers contributions in the field of ultra-trace analysis of multicomponent mixtures of organic pollutants in complex matrices. With this fact conventional capillary gas chromatography (CGC) and fast CGC with mass spectrometric detection (MS) has acquired a real importance in the analysis of endocrine disrupting pesticide (EDP) residues. This paper provides an overview of GC methods, including sample preparation steps, for analysis of EDPs in a variety of matrices at ultra-trace concentration levels. Emphasis is put on separation method, mode of MS detection and ionization and obtained limits of detection and quantification. Analysis time is one of the most important aspects that should be considered in the choice of analytical methods for routine analysis. Therefore, the benefits of developed fast GC methods are important.

A combination of fast GC with narrow-bore column and bench top quadrupole mass spectrometer (MS) detector in negative chemical ionization (NCI) mode (with methane as reagent gas) is set up and utilized for the ultratrace analysis of 25 selected pesticides. The observed pesticides, belonging to the endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), were from different chemical classes. A comparative study with electron impact (EI) ionization was also carried out (both techniques in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode). The programmed temperature vaporizer (PTV) injector in solvent vent mode and narrow-bore column (15mx0.15mm I.D.x0.15microm film of 5% diphenyl 95% dimethylsiloxane stationary phase) were used for effective and fast separation. Heptachlor (HPT) as internal standard (I.S.) was applied for the comparison of results obtained from absolute and normalized peak areas. Non-fatty food matrices were investigated. Fruit (apple - matrix-matched standards; orange, strawberry, plum - real samples) and vegetable (lettuce - real sample) extracts were prepared by a quick and effective QuEChERS sample preparation technique. Very good results were obtained for the characterization of fast GC-NCI-MS method analysing EDCs pesticides. Analyte response was linear from 0.01 to 150microgkg(-1) with the R(2) values in the range from 0.9936 to 1.0000 (calculated from absolute peak areas) and from 0.9956 to 1.0000 (calculated from peak areas normalized to HPT). Instrument limits of detection (LODs) and quantification (LOQs) were found at pgmL(-1) level and for the majority of analytes were up to three orders of magnitude lower for NCI compared to EI mode. In both ionization modes, repeatability of measurements expressed as relative standard deviation (RSDs) was less than 10% which is in very good agreement with the criterion of European Union.

The study of pesticide residues belonging to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) (23 analytes of different chemical classes--organochlorines, organophosphates, pyrethroids, dicarboximides, phtalamides, dinitroanilines, pyrazole, triazinone) in apple matrix with conventional capillary GC-NCI-MS (with methane as reagent gas) in comparison to EI ionization is presented. For sample preparation QuEChERS method was applied. The lowest calibration levels (LCLs) for all pesticides were determined in both modes. Calibration in the NCI mode was performed at the concentration levels from 0.1 to 500 microg kg(-1) (R(2) > 0.999) and for EI in the range from 5 to 500 microg kg(-1) (R(2) > 0.99). From LCLs the instrumental limits of detection (LODs) and quantification (LOQs) were calculated. Chemometric study of pesticide signals in two MS modes was performed. Repeatability of all measurements, expressed by the relative standard deviations of absolute peak areas was better than 10% for the majority of compounds. Significantly lower values were obtained for the NCI mode.

The importance of method development in the area of pesticide residues analysis is apparent from legislative requirements continuously decreasing the maximum acceptable concentration levels in food and water. This covers also contribution in the science in the field of ultra-trace analysis of organic pollutants in complex mixtures. Analysis time is one of the most important aspects that should be considered in the choice of analytical methods for routine application. With this fact, fast gas chromatography (GC) has acquired a real importance in the pesticide residue analysis. This paper provides an overview of fast GC methods for analysis of pesticide residues in variety of matrices at ultra-trace concentration levels. Emphasis is put on the development in the last 6 years.

Fast GC-MS with narrow-bore columns combined with effective sample preparation technique (QuEChERS method) was used for evaluation of various calibration approaches in pesticide residues analysis. In order to compare the performance of analyte protectants (APs) with matrix-matched standards calibration curves of selected pesticides were searched in terms of linearity of responses, repeatability of measurements and reached limit of quantifications utilizing the following calibration standards in the concentration range 1-500 ng mL(-1)(the equivalent sample concentration 1-500 microg kg(-1)): in neat solvent (acetonitrile) with/without addition of APs, matrix-matched standards with/without addition of APs. For APs results are in a good agreement with matrix-matched standards. To evaluate errors of determination of concentration synthetic samples at concentration level of pesticides 50 ng mL(-1) (50 microg kg(-1)) were analyzed and quantified using the above given standards. For less troublesome pesticides very good estimation of concentration was obtained utilizing APs, while for more troublesome pesticides such as methidathion, malathion, phosalone and deltamethrin significant overestimation reaching up to 80% occurred. According to presented results APs can be advantegously used for "easy" pesticides determination. For "difficult" pesticides an alternative calibration approach is required for samples potentially violating MRLs. An example of real sample measurement is shown. In this paper also the use of internal standards (triphenylphosphate (TPP) and heptachlor (HEPT)) for peak areas normalization is discussed in terms of repeatability of measurements and quantitative data obtained. TPP normalization provided slightly better results than the use of absolute peak areas measurements on the contrary to HEPT.

Pesticides are widely utilized at various stages of cultivation and during postharvest storage to protect plants against a range of pests and/or to provide quality preservation. Reliable confirmatory methods are required to monitor pesticide residues in baby foods and to ensure the safety of baby food supply. This review covers methods in which pesticide residues have been determined in baby food by the use of a wide range of chromatographic techniques after various sample preparation steps. The main attention is paid to the evaluation and improvement of sample extraction and clean-up methods (liquid extraction, solid-phase extraction (SPE), dispersive SPE (DSPE), microextraction procedures, matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD) and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)) considering low concentration levels of pesticide residues in baby food resulting from stringent European Union (EU) legislation. Instrumental aspects together with the matrix effects significantly contributing to the most important parameters considered in pesticide residues analysis of baby food--limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantification (LOQs) were included within the scope of this overview. Paper involves also monitoring studies.

In this work, two narrow-bore capillary columns with different internal diameters (I.D.) 0.15 mm (15 m length, 0.15 microm film thickness) and 0.10 mm (10 m length, 0.10 microm film thickness) with the same stationary phase (5% diphenyl 95% dimethylsiloxane), phase ratio and separation power were compared with regard to their advantages, practical limitations and applicability in fast GC on commercially available instrumentation. The column comparison concerns fast GC method development, speed and separation efficiency, the sample transfer into the column utilizing split and splitless inlet, sample capacity, detection (analysing compounds of a wide range of polarities and volatilities--even n-alkanes C16-C28 and selected pesticides) and ruggedness (in the field of ultratrace analysis of pesticide residues in real matrix). Under conditions corresponding to speed/separation efficiency trade-off 0.10 mm I.D. versus 0.15 mm I.D. column provides a speed gain of 1.74, but all other parameters investigated were better for the 0.15 mm I.D. column concerning more efficient sample transfer from inlet to the column using splitless injection, no discrimination with split injection. Better sample capacity (three times higher for the 0.15 mm than for the 0.10 mm I.D. column) resulted in improved ruggedness and simpler fast GC-MS method development.

Four sample preparation techniques were compared for the ultratrace analysis of pesticide residues in baby food: (a) modified Schenck's method based on ACN extraction with SPE cleaning; (b) quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) method based on ACN extraction and dispersive SPE; (c) modified QuEChERS method which utilizes column-based SPE instead of dispersive SPE; and (d) matrix solid phase dispersion (MSPD). The methods were combined with fast gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analysis. The effectiveness of clean-up of the final extract was determined by comparison of the chromatograms obtained. Time consumption, laboriousness, demands on glassware and working place, and consumption of chemicals, especially solvents, increase in the following order QuEChERS < modified QuEChERS < MSPD < modified Schenck's method. All methods offer satisfactory analytical characteristics at the concentration levels of 5, 10, and 100 microg/kg in terms of recoveries and repeatability. Recoveries obtained for the modified QuEChERS method were lower than for the original QuEChERS. In general the best LOQs were obtained for the modified Schenck's method. Modified QuEChERS method provides 21-72% better LOQs than the original method.

Organic solvent and water extracts of fly ash from a Milan (Italy) municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) were analyzed by large volume injection-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (LVI-GC-MS) with programmable temperature vaporizer (PTV). Using injection volumes of 10-100 microl, typically over a hundred compounds were detected in organic solvent extracts and ca. 35% of them could be tentatively identified from their electron impact ionization mass spectra. A protocol for the determination of the maximum amount of a potential environmental pollutant available for leaching (availability test) was developed for four selected target compounds: pentachlorobenzene (PeCB), hexachlorobenzene (HxCB), o-terphenyl (o-TPH) and m-terphenyl (m-TPH). Key parameters, extraction time and liquid-to-solid ratio (L/S), were studied in more detail. Recoveries of PeCB, HxCB and o-TPH spiked into the fly ash samples at two concentration levels ranged from 38% to 53% for freshly spiked and from 14% to 40% for 40-day aged fly ash. Recoveries of m-TPH were 8% to 11% from freshly spiked and less than 3% from aged spiked fly ash. The native amounts in Milan MSWI fly ash, determined in an interlaboratory exercise using the developed protocol, were 31 ng/g PeCB, 34 ng/g HxCB, 72 ng/g o-TPH and 4.4 ng/g m-TPH. A separate methodology was developed for the determination of compounds extracted from fly ash by water (leaching test). Following 8-h sonication at L/S 20, the leached amounts of PeCB, HxCB and o-TPH were 1.1, 3.1 and 6.0 ng/g fly ash, respectively.

In this work the application and limitations of a common bench top quadrupole mass spectrometer was evaluated for the qualitative and quantitative measurement of n-alkanes and pesticides of a wide range of volatilities and polarities with fast GC separations using 0.15 mm I.D. narrow-bore capillary columns. It was found that the spectra acquisition rate has a great impact on sensitivity (peak areas, peak shapes and S/N ratios). The quality of the obtained spectra is not significantly influenced in the full scan monitoring mode for the fastest scan rates. For quantitative analysis a selected ion monitoring mode is able to acquire the sufficient number of data-points for the proper peak shape reconstruction and good repeatability of peak areas measurements expressed by RSD (< 5%) for all tested dwell times shorter than 75 ms. However, for shorter dwell times, S/N ratio is lower, while peak areas are not influenced.

In this study, suitability of fast gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) on a narrow-bore column with a programmed temperature vaporizer for the analysis of pesticide residues in non-fatty food was evaluated. The main objectives were ruggedness and stability of chromatographic system with regards to co-extractives injected. The chromatographic matrix induced response enhancement was found to be strongly dependent on the concentration of residues and is reaching up to 700% compared to the pesticides solutions in a neat solvent. However, the responses of pesticides in matrix-matched standards at different concentration levels do not significantly change during 130 injections. Response enhancement/or decrease is influenced by the sample preparation technique. External calibration with matrix-matched calibration standards should, therefore, provide results with good precision also at the concentration level of 0.005 mg kg(-1). Special attention is given to the performance of the chromatographic column and retention gap with regards to peak widths, peak tailing and different sample preparation methods. During approximately 460 matrix sample injections, the performance of the analytical column was acceptable. GC-MS set-up with 0.15 mm i.d. column can be successfully utilized for the pesticide residues analysis.

Possibilities and practical aspects of implementation of splitless injection of larger volumes for fast GC purposes utilizing narrow-bore column, hydrogen as carrier gas, fast temperature programming under programmed flow conditions and commercial instrumentation were searched. As a model sample semivolatile compounds of a broad range of volatility and polarity (7 n-alkanes and 19 pesticides) were chosen. Peak shapes, peak broadening and peak areas and its repeatability were evaluated under various experimental set-ups (liner/injection technique combinations). Various factors, such as liner design, injection technique, retention gap length, compound volatility and polarity, the solvent used, initial oven temperature influenced compound focusation and/or maximal injection volume. Combination of analytical column (CP-Sil 13 CB 25 m long, 0.15 mm i.d., film thickness 0.4 microm) with normal-bore retention gap (1 m long, 0.32 mm i.d.) allowed maximal injection volume 8 microl for 4 mm i.d. liner used without any peak distortion when solvent recondensation in the retention gap was employed.

Large-volume injection utilizing programmable temperature vaporizer in solvent vent mode is combined with fast capillary gas chromatography and mass spectrometric detection. Optimized injection and chromatographic conditions made possible manual injection of a 20-microL ethyl acetate extract containing 15 organochlorine pesticides and their separation on a short, 0.1-mm-i.d. column in less than 8 min.

There is revived interest in the development and implementation of methods of faster GC. The paper summarises the advantages of faster GC analysis, general approaches to faster GC method development and practical aspects of fast gas chromatography with the utilisation of open tubular capillary columns with the stress on trace analysis. There are a number of ways to take the advantage of the improved speed of analysis by faster GC. Numerous options exist for pushing the speed of capillary gas chromatography (CGC) analysis. The scope of this paper is also to give an overview of the present state of faster GC instrumentation which is already available for trace analysis. The practicality of fast CGC is a function of sample preparation and the matrix interferences and how they affect the resultant resolution that may be achieved. Researchers have demonstrated the applicability of fast GC to trace and ultratrace analysis of volatile and semivolatile compounds also with narrow bore columns and difficult sample matrices (such as food, and soil extract). The main development of faster GC methods has been observed in the field of environmental analysis. Practical applications are presented. Both optimised sample preparation and experimental conditions for faster GC are the future perspective of trace analysis.

The results of a systematic study on the precision and repeatability of measurements of the headspace solid phase micro-extraction (SPME) with open-cap vials in combination with capillary gas chromatography in comparison with septum-sealed vials are reported. Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene isomers (BTEX) were used as the target analytes in the investigation of spiked water samples at concentration levels of 42.5 microg l(-1). The dependence of a sample volume versus peak area showed maximum SPME recovery. The influence of sample volume on the precision and the time of taking the sample on the losses of volatile analytes was examined.