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The development of a tractable small animal model faithfully reproducing human coronavirus disease 2019 pathogenesis would arguably meet a pressing need in biomedical research. Thus far, most investigators have used transgenic mice expressing the human ACE2 in epithelial cells (K18-hACE2 transgenic mice) that are intranasally instilled with a liquid severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) suspension under deep anesthesia. Unfortunately, this experimental approach results in disproportionate high central nervous system infection leading to fatal encephalitis, which is rarely observed in humans and severely limits this model’s usefulness. Here, we describe the use of an inhalation tower system that allows exposure of unanesthetized mice to aerosolized virus under controlled conditions. Aerosol exposure of K18-hACE2 transgenic mice to SARS-CoV-2 resulted in robust viral replication in the respiratory tract, anosmia, and airway obstruction but did not lead to fatal viral neuroinvasion. When compared with intranasal inoculation, aerosol infection resulted in a more pronounced lung pathology including increased immune infiltration, fibrin deposition, and a transcriptional signature comparable to that observed in SARS-CoV-2–infected patients. This model may prove useful for studies of viral transmission, disease pathogenesis (including long-term consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection), and therapeutic interventions.

Kupffer cells (KCs) are highly abundant, intravascular, liver-resident macrophages known for their scavenger and phagocytic functions. KCs can also present antigens to CD8 + T cells and promote either tolerance or effector differentiation, but the mechanisms underlying these discrepant outcomes are poorly understood. Here, we used a mouse model of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, in which HBV-specific naive CD8 + T cells recognizing hepatocellular antigens are driven into a state of immune dysfunction, to identify a subset of KCs (referred to as KC2) that cross-presents hepatocellular antigens upon interleukin-2 (IL-2) administration, thus improving the antiviral function of T cells. Removing MHC-I from all KCs, including KC2, or selectively depleting KC2 impaired the capacity of IL-2 to revert the T cell dysfunction induced by intrahepatic priming. In summary, by sensing IL-2 and cross-presenting hepatocellular antigens, KC2 overcome the tolerogenic potential of the hepatic microenvironment, suggesting new strategies for boosting hepatic T cell immunity., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests M.I. participates in advisory boards and consultancies for Gilead Sciences, Roche, Third Rock Ventures, Amgen, and Allovir. L.G.G is a member of the board of directors at Genenta Science and Epsilon Bio and participates in advisory boards and consultancies for Gilead Sciences, Roche, and Arbutus Biopharma. M.I. and L.G.G. are inventors on patents filed, owned, and managed by San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, and the Telethon Foundation on technology related to work discussed in this manuscript (WO2020/016434, WO2020/016427, WO2020/030781, WO2020/234483, European Union [EU] patent applications 19211249.8 and 20156716.1, and U.K. patent application 1907493.9). F.G. is a member of the Immunity advisory board., (Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Antibodies are critical for protection against viral infections. However, several viruses, such as lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), avoid the induction of early protective antibody responses by poorly understood mechanisms. Here we analyzed the spatiotemporal dynamics of B cell activation to show that, upon subcutaneous infection, LCMV-specific B cells readily relocate to the interfollicular and T cell areas of the draining lymph node where they extensively interact with CD11b + Ly6C hi inflammatory monocytes. These myeloid cells were recruited to lymph nodes draining LCMV infection sites in a type I interferon-, CCR2-dependent fashion and they suppressed antiviral B cell responses by virtue of their ability to produce nitric oxide. Depletion of inflammatory monocytes, inhibition of their lymph node recruitment or impairment of their nitric oxide-producing ability enhanced LCMV-specific B cell survival and led to robust neutralizing antibody production. In conclusion, our results identify inflammatory monocytes as critical gatekeepers that prevent antiviral B cell responses and suggest that certain viruses take advantage of these cells to prolong their persistence within the host., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Effector CD8(+) T cells (CD8 TE) play a key role during hepatotropic viral infections. Here, we used advanced imaging in mouse models of hepatitis B virus (HBV) pathogenesis to understand the mechanisms whereby these cells home to the liver, recognize antigens, and deploy effector functions. We show that circulating CD8 TE arrest within liver sinusoids by docking onto platelets previously adhered to sinusoidal hyaluronan via CD44. After the initial arrest, CD8 TE actively crawl along liver sinusoids and probe sub-sinusoidal hepatocytes for the presence of antigens by extending cytoplasmic protrusions through endothelial fenestrae. Hepatocellular antigen recognition triggers effector functions in a diapedesis-independent manner and is inhibited by the processes of sinusoidal defenestration and capillarization that characterize liver fibrosis. These findings reveal the dynamic behavior whereby CD8 TE control hepatotropic pathogens and suggest how liver fibrosis might reduce CD8 TE immune surveillance toward infected or transformed hepatocytes., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Chronic infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a major risk factor for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The pathogenesis of HBV-associated HCC involves both viral and host factors. The latter include a functionally inefficient CD8(+) T-cell response that fails to clear the infection from the liver but sustains a chronic necroinflammatory process that contributes to the development of HCC. According to this scenario, amelioration of immune-mediated chronic liver injury may prevent HCC. Because platelets facilitate immune-mediated liver injury by promoting the hepatic accumulation of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells, we evaluated the long-term consequences of antiplatelet therapy in an HBV transgenic mouse model of chronic immune-mediated necroinflammatory liver disease that progresses to HCC. Treatment with aspirin and clopidogrel during the chronic phase of the disease diminished the number of intrahepatic HBV-specific CD8(+) T cells and HBV-nonspecific inflammatory cells, the severity of liver fibrosis, and the development of HCC. Antiplatelet therapy improved overall survival without causing significant side effects. In contrast, the same antiplatelet regimen had no antitumor effect when HCC was induced nonimmunologically by chronic exposure to a hepatotoxic chemical. The unprecedented observation that antiplatelet therapy inhibits or delays immune-mediated hepatocarcinogenesis suggests that platelets may be key players in the pathogenesis of HBV-associated liver cancer and supports the notion that immune-mediated necroinflammatory reactions are an important cause of hepatocellular transformation during chronic hepatitis.