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We present a case of fetal akinesia deformation sequence due to nemaline myopathy (NM). In addition to the muscle manifestations, prenatal observations included an enlarged subarachnoid space and delayed cortical development. Trio whole-exome sequencing revealed a de novo novel pathogenic variant in the ACTA1 gene, which encodes skeletal muscle alpha-actin. Our findings suggest that brain abnormalities can occur prenatally in NM and support the potential role of skeletal muscle alpha-actin in the central nervous system., (© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Spastic paraplegia 11 (SPG11) is the most prevalent form of autosomal recessive hereditary spastic paraplegia, resulting from biallelic pathogenic variants in the SPG11 gene (MIM *610844)., Methods: The proband is a 36-year-old female referred for genetic evaluation due to cognitive dysfunction, gait impairment, and corpus callosum atrophy (brain MRI was normal at 25-years-old). Diagnostic approaches included CGH array, next-generation sequencing, and whole transcriptome sequencing., Results: CGH array revealed a 180 kb deletion located upstream of SPG11. Sequencing of SPG11 uncovered two rare single nucleotide variants: the novel variant c.3143C>T in exon 17 (in cis with the deletion), and the previously reported pathogenic variant c.6409C>T in exon 34 (in trans). Whole transcriptome sequencing revealed that the variant c.3143C>T caused exon 17 skipping., Conclusion: We report a novel sequence variant in the SPG11 gene resulting in exon 17 skipping, which, along with a nonsense variant, causes Spastic Paraplegia 11 in our proband. In addition, a deletion upstream of SPG11 was identified in the patient, whose implication in the phenotype remains uncertain. Nonetheless, the deletion apparently affects cis-regulatory elements of the gene, suggesting a potential new pathogenic mechanism underlying the disease in a subset of undiagnosed patients. Our findings further support the hypothesis that the origin of thin corpus callosum in patients with SPG11 is of progressive nature., (© 2024 The Author(s). Molecular Genetics & Genomic Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

The phenotypic repercussion of ZDHHC15 haploinsufficiency is not well-known. This gene was initially suggested as a candidate for X-linked mental retardation, but such an association was later questioned. We studied a multiplex family with three members with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) by array CGH, karyotype, exome sequencing and X-chromosome inactivation patterns. Medical history interviews, cognitive and physical examinations, and sensory profiling were also assessed. The three family members with ASD (with normal cognitive abilities and an abnormal sensory profile) were the only carriers of a 1.7 Mb deletion in the long arm of chromosome X, involving: ZDHHC15, MAGEE2, PBDC1, MAGEE1, MIR384 and MIR325. The normal chromosome X was preferentially inactivated in female carriers, and the whole exome sequencing of an affected family member did not reveal any additional genetic variant that could explain the phenotype. Thus, in the present family, ASD segregates with a deletion on chromosome X that includes ZDHHC15. Considering our results together with gene data (regarding function, expression, conservation and animal/cellular models), ZDHHC15 is a candidate gene for ASD. Emerging evidence also suggests that this gene could be associated with other neurodevelopmental disorders, with incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity., (© 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

GLYT1 encephalopathy is a form of glycine encephalopathy caused by disturbance of glycine transport. The phenotypic spectrum of the disease has not yet been completely described, as only four unrelated families with the disorder have been reported to date. Common features of affected patients include neonatal hypotonia, respiratory failure, encephalopathy, myoclonic jerks, dysmorphic features, and musculoeskeletal anomalies. All reported affected patients harbor biallelic genetic variants in SLC6A9. SNP array together with Sanger sequencing were performed in a newborn with arthrogryposis and severe neurological impairment. The novel genetic variant c.997delC in SLC6A9 was detected in homozygous state in the patient. At protein level, the predicted change is p.(Arg333Alafs*3), which most probably results in a loss of protein function. The variant cosegregated with the disease in the family. A subsequent pregnancy with ultrasound anomalies was also affected. The proband presented the core phenotypic features of GLYT1 encephalopathy, but also a burst suppression pattern on the electroencephalogram, a clinical feature not previously associated with the disorder. Our results suggest that the appearance of this pattern correlates with higher cerebrospinal fluid glycine levels and cerebrospinal fluid/plasma glycine ratios. A detailed discussion on the possible pathophysiological mechanisms of the disorder is also provided., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Over the last ten years, analysis of copy number variants has increasingly been applied to the study of arrhythmogenic pathologies associated with sudden death, mainly due to significant advances in the field of massive genetic sequencing. Nevertheless, few published reports have focused on the prevalence of copy number variants associated with sudden cardiac death. As a result, the frequency of these genetic alterations in arrhythmogenic diseases as well as their genetic interpretation and clinical translation has not been established. This review summarizes the current available data concerning copy number variants in sudden cardiac death-related diseases., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Cardiomyopathies are a heterogeneous group of inherited cardiac diseases characterized by progressive myocardium abnormalities associated with mechanical and/or electrical dysfunction. Massive genetic sequencing technologies allow a comprehensive genetic analysis to unravel the cause of disease. However, most identified genetic variants remain of unknown clinical significance due to incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity. Therefore, genetic interpretation of variants and translation into clinical practice remain a current challenge. We performed retrospective comprehensive clinical assessment and genetic analysis in six families, four diagnosed with arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, and two diagnosed with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). Genetic testing identified three rare variants (two non-sense and one small indel inducing a frameshift), each present in two families. Although each variant is currently classified as pathogenic and the cause of the diagnosed cardiomyopathy, the onset and/or clinical course differed in each patient. New genetic technology allows comprehensive yet cost-effective genetic analysis, although genetic interpretation, and clinical translation of identified variants should be carefully done in each family in a personalized manner.

Sudden infant death syndrome is the leading cause of death during the first year of life. A large part of cases remains without a conclusive cause of death after complete autopsy. In these situations, cardiac arrhythmia of genetic origin is suspected as the most plausible cause of death. Our aim was to ascertain whether genetic variants associated with sudden cardiac death might be the cause of death in a cohort of infants died suddenly. We analyzed 108 genes associated with sudden cardiac death in 44 post-mortem samples of infants less than 1 year old of age who died at rest. Definite cause of death was not conclusive in any case after a complete autopsy. Genetic analysis identified at least one rare variant in 90.90% of samples. A total of 121 rare genetic variants were identified. Of them, 33.05% were novel and 39.66% were located in genes encoding ion channels or associated proteins. A comprehensive genetic analysis in infants who died suddenly enables the unraveling of potentially causative cardiac variants in 2045% of cases. Molecular autopsy should be included in forensic protocols when no conclusive cause of death is identified. Large part genetic variants remain of uncertain significance, reinforcing the crucial role of genetic interpretation before clinical translation but also in early identification of relatives at risk., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Several studies have identified copy number variants (CNVs) as responsible for cardiac diseases associated with sudden cardiac death (SCD), but very few exhaustive analyses in large cohorts of patients have been performed, and they have been generally focused on a specific SCD-related disease. The aim of the present study was to screen for CNVs the most prevalent genes associated with SCD in a large cohort of patients who suffered sudden unexplained death or had an inherited cardiac disease (cardiomyopathy or channelopathy). A total of 1765 European patients were analyzed with a homemade algorithm for the assessment of CNVs using high-throughput sequencing data. Thirty-six CNVs were identified (2%), and most of them appeared to have a pathogenic role. The frequency of CNVs among cases of sudden unexplained death, patients with a cardiomyopathy or a channelopathy was 1.4% (8/587), 2.3% (20/874), and 2.6% (8/304), respectively. Detection rates were particularly high for arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (5.1%), long QT syndrome (4.7%), and dilated cardiomyopathy (4.4%). As such large genomic rearrangements underlie a non-neglectable portion of cases, we consider that their analysis should be performed as part of the routine genetic testing of sudden unexpected death cases and patients with SCD-related diseases.

Background: Sudden cardiac death is a natural and unexpected death that occurs within 1 h of the first symptom. Most sudden cardiac deaths occur during exercise, mostly as a result of myocardial infarction. After autopsy, some cases, especially in the young, are diagnosed as cardiomyopathies or remain without a conclusive cause of death. In both situations, genetic alterations may explain the arrhythmia., Objective: Our aim was to identify a genetic predisposition to sudden cardiac death in a cohort of post-mortem cases of individuals who died during exercise, with a structurally normal heart, and were classified as arrhythmogenic death., Methods: We analyzed a cohort of 52 post-mortem samples from individuals <50 years old who had a negative autopsy. Next-generation sequencing technology was used to screen genes associated with sudden cardiac death., Results: Our cohort showed a male prevalence (12:1). Half of the deaths occurred in individuals 41-50 years of age. Running was the most common exercise activity during the fatal event, accounting for 46.15% of cases. Genetic analysis identified 83 rare variants in 37 samples (71.15% of all samples). Of all rare variants, 36.14% were classified as deleterious, being present in 53.84% of all cases., Conclusions: A comprehensive analysis of sudden cardiac death-related genes in individuals who died suddenly while exercising enabled the identification of potentially causative variants. However, many genetic variants remain of indeterminate significance, thus further work is needed before clinical translation. Nonetheless, comprehensive genetic analysis of individuals who died during exercise enables the detection of potentially causative variants and helps to identify at-risk relatives.

Introduction: Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most prevalent inherited heart disease. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) is the preferred genetic test, but the diagnostic value of screening for minor and candidate genes, and the role of copy number variants (CNVs) deserves further evaluation., Methods: Three hundred and eighty-seven consecutive unrelated patients with HCM were screened for genetic variants in the 5 most frequent genes (MYBPC3, MYH7, TNNT2, TNNI3 and TPM1) using Sanger sequencing (N = 84) or NGS (N = 303). In the NGS cohort we analyzed 20 additional minor or candidate genes, and applied a proprietary bioinformatics algorithm for detecting CNVs. Additionally, the rate and classification of TTN variants in HCM were compared with 427 patients without structural heart disease., Results: The percentage of patients with pathogenic/likely pathogenic (P/LP) variants in the main genes was 33.3%, without significant differences between the Sanger sequencing and NGS cohorts. The screening for 20 additional genes revealed LP variants in ACTC1, MYL2, MYL3, TNNC1, GLA and PRKAG2 in 12 patients. This approach resulted in more inconclusive tests (36.0% vs. 9.6%, p<0.001), mostly due to variants of unknown significance (VUS) in TTN. The detection rate of rare variants in TTN was not significantly different to that found in the group of patients without structural heart disease. In the NGS cohort, 4 patients (1.3%) had pathogenic CNVs: 2 deletions in MYBPC3 and 2 deletions involving the complete coding region of PLN., Conclusions: A small percentage of HCM cases without point mutations in the 5 main genes are explained by P/LP variants in minor or candidate genes and CNVs. Screening for variants in TTN in HCM patients drastically increases the number of inconclusive tests, and shows a rate of VUS that is similar to patients without structural heart disease, suggesting that this gene should not be analyzed for clinical purposes in HCM.

Sudden cardiac arrest is a leading cause of death worldwide. Most cardiac arrests happen in patients who have previously suffered a myocardial infarct. The risk of sudden death after infarction may increase in people who carry a pathogenic genetic alteration in cardiac ion channels. We hypothesized that micro-ischemia could trigger lethal arrhythmogenesis, thus we sought to identify genetic alterations in cardiac ion channels in patients with micro-ischemic disease. We studied a cohort of 56 post-mortem samples. Autopsy studies identified myocardial infarction as the cause of death in each case. We used both Sanger sequencing and next-generation sequencing to screen candidate genes associated with sudden cardiac death. We identified six rare missense genetic variations in five unrelated patients. Two variants have been previously reported; one is associated with atrial fibrillation (SCN5A&#95;p.H445D), and the other is predicted to be benign (ANK2&#95;p.T2059M). The novel variants were predicted in silico as benign, except for one (RyR2&#95;p.M4019T), which was classified as deleterious. Our post-mortem, micro-infarction cohort displayed a rate of nearly 10% non-common genetic variants. However, the clinical significance of most of the identified variants remains unknown due to lack of family assessment. Further analyses should be performed in large cohorts to clarify the role of ion-channel gene analysis in samples showing microscopic ischemic alterations., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

This study sought to determine the usefulness of genetic testing to predict evolution in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) and to assess the role of genetic testing in clinical practice. Genetic results of 100 HCM patients tested for mutations in ≥10 HCM-causing genes were evaluated. Patients were classified as with poor (group A) or favourable (group B) clinical course. Forty-five pathogenic mutations (PM) were identified in 28 patients (56 %) from group A and in 23 (46 %) from group B (p = 0.317). Only 40 patients (40 %) exhibited PM that had been previously reported and only 15 (15 %) had PM reported in ≥10 individuals. PM associated with poor prognosis were identified in just five patients from group A (10 %). Genetic findings are not useful to predict prognosis in most HCM patients. By contrast, real-world data reinforce the usefulness of genetic testing to provide genetic counselling and to enable cascade genetic screening.

In order to contribute to the knowledge of type and frequency of chromosome abnormalities in early pregnancy losses, we analyzed the cytogenetic results from a large series of first trimester miscarriages, using a diagnostic approach with a high success rate and no maternal contamination. A total of 1,119 consecutive chorionic villi samples were obtained before evacuation, and karyotypes were prepared after short-term culture (STC). In 603 samples, a long-term culture (LTC) was also performed. The overall and individual frequencies of the different types of chromosome abnormalities were established, including placental mosaicisms, and their relationship with maternal age and gestational weeks was assessed. An abnormal karyotype was detected in 70.3% of the samples. Single autosomal trisomy was the most frequent abnormality (64.6% of the abnormal cases), followed by triploidy (13.1%) and monosomy X (10.4%). Chromosome rearrangements were found in 5.2%, combined abnormalities in 8.9%, and placental mosaicism in 3.5% of the cases with STC and LTC performed. Individual trisomies behaved differently with respect to maternal age and intrauterine survival. Due to the combination of STC and LTC, our study offers reliable information on the incidence and type of chromosome abnormalities and placental mosaicism in miscarriages and contributes to define the cytogenetic implication in their etiology., (© 2017 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Purpose: Brugada syndrome (BrS) is a form of cardiac arrhythmia which may lead to sudden cardiac death. The recommended genetic testing (direct sequencing of SCN5A) uncovers disease-causing SNVs and/or indels in ~20% of cases. Limited information exists about the frequency of copy number variants (CNVs) in SCN5A in BrS patients, and the role of CNVs in BrS-minor genes is a completely unexplored field., Methods: 220 BrS patients with negative genetic results were studied to detect CNVs in SCN5A. 63 cases were also screened for CNVs in BrS-minor genes. Studies were performed by Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification or Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)., Results: The detection rate for CNVs in SCN5A was 0.45% (1/220). The detected imbalance consisted of a duplication from exon 15 to exon 28, and could potentially explain the BrS phenotype. No CNVs were found in BrS-minor genes., Conclusion: CNVs in current BrS-related genes are uncommon among BrS patients. However, as these rearrangements may underlie a portion of cases and they undergo unnoticed by traditional sequencing, an appealing alternative to conventional studies in these patients could be targeted NGS, including in a single experiment the study of SNVs, indels and CNVs in all the known BrS-related genes., Competing Interests: Author RB received funding from FerrerInCode, a commercial company, for this study. Author CF-C received funding from Gendiag SL, a commercial company, for this study. There are no patents, products in development or marketed products to declare. This does not alter our adherence to all the PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

A leading cause of death in western countries is sudden cardiac death, and can be associated with genetic disease. Next-generation sequencing has allowed thorough analysis of genes associated with this entity, including, most recently, titin. We aimed to identify potentially pathogenic genetic variants in titin. A total of 1126 samples were analyzed using a custom sequencing panel including major genes related to sudden cardiac death. Our cohort was divided into three groups: 432 cases from patients with cardiomyopathies, 130 cases from patients with channelopathies, and 564 post-mortem samples from individuals showing anatomical healthy hearts and non-conclusive causes of death after comprehensive autopsy. None of the patients included had definite pathogenic variants in the genes analyzed by our custom cardio-panel. Retrospective analysis comparing the in-house database and available public databases also was performed. We identified 554 rare variants in titin, 282 of which were novel. Seven were previously reported as pathogenic. Of these 554 variants, 493 were missense variants, 233 of which were novel. Of all variants identified, 399 were unique and 155 were identified at least twice. No definite pathogenic variants were identified in any of genes analyzed. We identified rare, mostly novel, titin variants that seem to play a potentially pathogenic role in sudden cardiac death. Additional studies should be performed to clarify the role of these variants in sudden cardiac death.

Background: Brugada syndrome (BrS) is a rare genetic cardiac arrhythmia that can lead to sudden cardiac death in patients with a structurally normal heart. Genetic variations in SCN5A can be identified in approximately 20-25% of BrS cases. The aim of our work was to determine the spectrum and prevalence of genetic variations in a Spanish cohort diagnosed with BrS., Methodology/principal Findings: We directly sequenced fourteen genes reported to be associated with BrS in 55 unrelated patients clinically diagnosed. Our genetic screening allowed the identification of 61 genetic variants. Of them, 20 potentially pathogenic variations were found in 18 of the 55 patients (32.7% of the patients, 83.3% males). Nineteen of them were located in SCN5A, and had either been previously reported as pathogenic variations or had a potentially pathogenic effect. Regarding the sequencing of the minority genes, we discovered a potentially pathogenic variation in SCN2B that was described to alter sodium current, and one nonsense variant of unknown significance in RANGRF. In addition, we also identified 40 single nucleotide variations which were either synonymous variants (four of them had not been reported yet) or common genetic variants. We next performed MLPA analysis of SCN5A for the 37 patients without an identified genetic variation, and no major rearrangements were detected. Additionally, we show that being at the 30-50 years range or exhibiting symptoms are factors for an increased potentially pathogenic variation discovery yield., Conclusions: In summary, the present study is the first comprehensive genetic evaluation of 14 BrS-susceptibility genes and MLPA of SCN5A in a Spanish BrS cohort. The mean pathogenic variation discovery yield is higher than that described for other European BrS cohorts (32.7% vs 20-25%, respectively), and is even higher for patients in the 30-50 years age range.

The heritable cardiovascular disorder long QT syndrome (LQTS), characterized by prolongation of the QT interval on electrocardiogram, carries a high risk of sudden cardiac death. We sought to add new data to the existing knowledge of genetic mutations contributing to LQTS to both expand our understanding of its genetic basis and assess the value of genetic testing in clinical decision-making. Direct sequencing of the five major contributing genes, KCNQ1, KCNH2, SCN5A, KCNE1, and KCNE2, was performed in a cohort of 115 non-related LQTS patients. Pathogenicity of the variants was analyzed using family segregation, allele frequency from public databases, conservation analysis, and Condel and Provean in silico predictors. Phenotype-genotype correlations were analyzed statistically. Sequencing identified 36 previously described and 18 novel mutations. In 51.3% of the index cases, mutations were found, mostly in KCNQ1, KCNH2, and SCN5A; 5.2% of cases had multiple mutations. Pathogenicity analysis revealed 39 mutations as likely pathogenic, 12 as VUS, and 3 as non-pathogenic. Clinical analysis revealed that 75.6% of patients with QTc≥500 ms were genetically confirmed. Our results support the use of genetic testing of KCNQ1, KCNH2, and SCN5A as part of the diagnosis of LQTS and to help identify relatives at risk of SCD. Further, the genetic tools appear more valuable as disease severity increases. However, the identification of genetic variations in the clinical investigation of single patients using bioinformatic tools can produce erroneous conclusions regarding pathogenicity. Therefore segregation studies are key to determining causality.

Background: Long QT Syndrome is an inherited channelopathy leading to sudden cardiac death due to ventricular arrhythmias. Despite that several genes have been associated with the disease, nearly 20% of cases remain without an identified genetic cause. Other genetic alterations such as copy number variations have been recently related to Long QT Syndrome. Our aim was to take advantage of current genetic technologies in a family affected by Long QT Syndrome in order to identify the cause of the disease., Methods: Complete clinical evaluation was performed in all family members. In the index case, a Next Generation Sequencing custom-built panel, including 55 sudden cardiac death-related genes, was used both for detection of sequence and copy number variants. Next Generation Sequencing variants were confirmed by Sanger method. Copy number variations variants were confirmed by Multiplex Ligation dependent Probe Amplification method and at the mRNA level. Confirmed variants and copy number variations identified in the index case were also analyzed in relatives., Results: In the index case, Next Generation Sequencing revealed a novel variant in TTN and a large deletion in KCNQ1, involving exons 7 and 8. Both variants were confirmed by alternative techniques. The mother and the brother of the index case were also affected by Long QT Syndrome, and family cosegregation was observed for the KCNQ1 deletion, but not for the TTN variant., Conclusions: Next Generation Sequencing technology allows a comprehensive genetic analysis of arrhythmogenic diseases. We report a copy number variation identified using Next Generation Sequencing analysis in Long QT Syndrome. Clinical and familiar correlation is crucial to elucidate the role of genetic variants identified to distinguish the pathogenic ones from genetic noise.

Background: The reason behind a sudden death of a young individual remains unknown in up to 50% of postmortem cases. Pathogenic mutations in genes encoding heart proteins are known to cause sudden cardiac death., Objective: The aim of our study was to ascertain whether genetic alterations could provide an explanation for sudden cardiac death in a juvenile cohort with no-conclusive cause of death after comprehensive autopsy., Methods: Twenty-nine cases <15 years showing no-conclusive cause of death after a complete autopsy were studied. Genetic analysis of 7 main genes associated with sudden cardiac death was performed using Sanger technology in low quality DNA cases, while in good quality cases the analysis of 55 genes associated with sudden cardiac death was performed using Next Generation Sequencing technology., Results: Thirty-five genetic variants were identified in 12 cases (41.37%). Ten genetic/variants in genes encoding cardiac ion channels were identified in 8 cases (27.58%). We also identified 9 cases (31.03%) carrying 25 genetic variants in genes encoding structural cardiac proteins. Nine cases carried more than one genetic variation, 5 of them combining structural and non-structural genes., Conclusions: Our study supports the inclusion of molecular autopsy in forensic routine protocols when no conclusive cause of death is identified. Around 40% of sudden cardiac death young cases carry a genetic variant that could provide an explanation for the cause of death. Because relatives could be at risk of sudden cardiac death, our data reinforce their need of clinical assessment and, if indicated, of genetic analysis., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: To assess the frequency of karyotype abnormalities and chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome among fetuses with abnormal cardiac ultrasound findings, and to evaluate the clinical value of chromosomal microarray-based analysis (CMA) in the study of such pregnancies., Methods: First, we carried out retrospective analysis of karyotype abnormalities and 22q11.2 deletion syndrome cases diagnosed between January 2009 and December 2011 in our center among fetuses with abnormal cardiac ultrasound findings (n = 276). Second, CMA was performed in 51 of the fetuses with such findings, normal karyotype and negative or no 22q11.2 deletion syndrome study, and in the only fetus with a heart defect and an apparently balanced de novo chromosomal rearrangement., Results: Out of the 276 pregnancies with abnormal cardiac ultrasound findings, karyotyping revealed a chromosomal abnormality in 44 (15.9%). Of fetuses with normal karyotype in which 22q11.2 deletion syndrome studies were performed, 6.4% (5/78) had this microdeletion syndrome. Among fetuses with abnormal cardiac findings, normal karyotype and negative or no 22q11.2 deletion syndrome study that underwent CMA, the detection rate of pathogenic copy number variants not detected by conventional cytogenetics was 2.0% (1/51), and no variants of uncertain clinical significance were found. In the fetus with a heart defect and an apparently balanced de novo chromosomal rearrangement, CMA revealed that the rearrangement was not truly balanced., Conclusions: In the assessment of genetic abnormalities in pregnancies with abnormal cardiac ultrasound findings, the diagnostic yield may be increased by 2% if CMA is used as a complementary tool to conventional cytogenetics. Our results suggest that CMA could be a good alternative to karyotyping in these pregnancies., (Copyright © 2012 ISUOG. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Chromosome abnormalities are one of the main causes of congenital defects, and establishing their frequency according to the different clinical indications for invasive procedure during pregnancy is especially important for genetic counselling. We analyzed the results of 29,883 amniotic fluid samples referred to our laboratory for cytogenetic studies from 1998 to 2009, which constitutes the largest series of cytogenetic analysis performed on amniotic fluid samples in Spain. The number of samples received tended to increase from 1998 to 2005, but after 2005 it decreased substantially. Cytogenetic results were obtained in 99.5% of the samples, and the detected incidence of chromosome abnormalities was 2.9%. Of these, 48.1% consisted of classical autosomal aneuploidies, trisomy 21 being the most frequent one. The main clinical indications for amniocentesis were positive prenatal screening and advanced maternal age, but referral reasons with highest positive predictive values were, excluding parental chromosome rearrangement, increased nuchal translucency (9.2%) and ultrasound abnormalities (6.6%). In conclusion, performing the karyotype on amniotic fluid samples is a good method for the detection of chromosome abnormalities during pregnancy. The number of cytogenetic studies on amniotic fluid has now decreased, however, due to the implementation of first trimester prenatal screening for the detection of Down syndrome, which allows karyotyping on chorionic villus samples. Our results also show that both ultrasound abnormalities and increased nuchal translucency are excellent clinical indicators for fetal chromosome abnormality., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To evaluate the usefulness of subtelomeric multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) in both the detection of subtelomeric rearrangements in fetuses with ultrasound abnormalities and normal karyotype, and the characterization of cytogenetically detectable rearrangements., Method: We studied by subtelomeric MLPA 229 pregnancies with ultrasound findings and normal karyotype (Group 1) and five pregnancies with a cytogenetically visible but not microscopically characterizable rearrangement (Group 2). The detected imbalances were confirmed by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and parents were also studied., Results: In Group 1, two clinically relevant subtelomeric imbalances (14qter deletion and 20pter deletion) and one subtelomeric imbalance of uncertain significance (X/Ypter duplication) were diagnosed, showing a detection rate of cryptic subtelomeric imbalances in these pregnancies of 1.3%. However, only 14qter deletion seems to be clearly associated with the observed prenatal findings. In Group 2, MLPA contributed to the precise description of the chromosome abnormalities., Conclusion: The low detection rate of subtelomeric imbalances and the poor genotype-phenotype correlations in pregnancies with ultrasound abnormalities and normal karyotype suggest that subtelomeric MLPA is not a crucial tool in the prenatal diagnosis of these cases. However, our work provides evidence that MLPA is very useful for the characterization of unbalanced karyotypes. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

We report on a girl with mild dysmorphic facial features, Dandy-Walker malformation (DWM), iris coloboma, profound hearing loss, and hyperlaxity of skin and joints, whose karyotype is 46,XX,t(6;13)(q23;q32)dn and who has a cryptic imbalance at the 13q32 translocation breakpoint assessed by array-CGH. Our patient has many clinical manifestations in common with those of the previously reported cases of 13q32 deletions, which suggests that at least part of the abnormal phenotype is probably due to the imbalance. The recurrent finding of DWM among patients with 13q deletions has led to the suggestions that candidate gene/s for its development are on chromosome 13. We describe the smallest 13q deletion associated to DWM, which allows further narrowing of the previously established critical region for this brain malformation to 13q32.2-32.3. Among the few genes of the deleted region, ZIC2 and ZIC5 seem the most plausible candidates, which is in keeping with some previous reports. This work also illustrates the usefulness of array-CGH platforms in the identification of cryptic imbalances in carriers of apparently balanced rearrangements with abnormal phenotypes.

Trisomy 20 mosaicism is a common abnormality found in prenatal diagnosis. Its clinical significance remains unclear since approximately 90-93% of cases result in normal phenotype. Only 5 cases of non-mosaic trisomy 20 in amniotic fluid culture surviving beyond the first trimester have been reported. Moreover, trisomic cells are generally not detectable in blood and have only been reported in three cases. We present a case of non-mosaic trisomy 20 found in chorionic villi sample and amniotic fluid culture in a fetus with minor abnormalities not detected by ultrasound examination. Pathological examination of the fetus only revealed right pulmonary isomerism and camptodactily, and no major malformations were disclosed. Trisomic lineage was also detected in fetal blood, kidney, skin and brain tissue cultures. Molecular analysis revealed that the extra chromosome 20 was originated in paternal meiosis. To our knowledge, we report the first prenatal case of non-mosaic trisomy 20 of paternal origin that has been confirmed in several fetal tissues, including blood, in a fetus with minor malformations not detected prenatally., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

The identification of an unexpected structural chromosome rearrangement at prenatal diagnosis can be problematic and raises unique genetic counseling issues. We describe two consecutive prenatal cases within a family with an inherited unbalanced (Y;12) translocation and discuss the genotype-phenotype correlation. The first fetus presented with 12qter monosomy and pseudoautosomal region 2 trisomy, while the second fetus had the alternative unbalanced state. Although the first fetus had a structural heart defect, such small imbalances might not give sonographic findings, making their prenatal diagnosis difficult. However, congenital abnormalities are expected in both unbalanced forms of the translocation, including mental retardation, which could be explained by the gene dosage variation of P2RX2. To our knowledge, these are the first published cases reporting this subtype of (Y;12) translocation, in both balanced and unbalanced states.

Objective: To describe the molecular and cytogenetic characterization of two different prenatal cases of androgenetic/biparental mosaicism and review the different possible mechanisms of origin in each case., Design: Case study and literature review., Setting: Tertiary medical center (prenatal diagnosis unit)., Patient(s): A 26-year-old pregnant woman referred for suspected partial mole placenta and a 33-year-old pregnant woman referred for polyhydramnios and fetal malformations., Intervention(s): Ultrasound examination, prenatal invasive procedures, molecular and cytogenetic analysis, physical and pathologic evaluation, and genetic counseling., Main Outcome Measure(s): Cytogenetic analysis, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and quantitative fluorescence polymerase chain reaction (QF-PCR) analysis., Result(s): The finding of a normal karyotype together with a triploidy-like QF-PCR profile led to the diagnosis of two cases of androgenetic (genome-wide paternal uniparental disomy)/biparental mosaicism. The first case showed placental mesenchymal dysplasia and a normal fetus, and the second one presented a fetus showing Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome features and an apparently normal placenta., Conclusion(s): These cases highlight the wide range of possible clinical presentations of androgenetic/biparental mosaicism, the variety of mechanisms of their origin, and the importance of the combination of molecular and cytogenetic analysis to achieve an accurate diagnosis and provide reproductive counseling.

Interstitial deletions of the short arm of chromosome 3 are rare, and a specific clinical phenotype has not been defined. We report the first isolated cryptic proximal interstitial 3p deletion, del(3)(p12.3p13), assessed by array-based comparative genomic hybridization in a girl with an inversion of chromosome 7, whose phenotype includes neurodevelopmental delay, growth retardation, dysmorphic facial features, hypophysis hypoplasia, gastroesophageal reflux, clinodactyly, preauricular appendix, and myopia. Her features are similar to those observed in the previously reported cases of proximal 3p deletions overlapping with our imbalance, indicating that her clinical manifestations are likely to be due to the deletion. As our patient's imbalance is the first non-cytogenetically visible proximal interstitial 3p deletion uncomplicated by other imbalances, its characterization has allowed us to narrow the minimal deletion interval associated with growth retardation and neurodevelopmental delay to the 3p12.3-p13 region. Among the genes found in this region, ROBO1, ROBO2, PDZRN3 and CNTN3 might play a role in the neurodevelopmental delay of the patient. This study provides additional evidence that cryptic imbalances anywhere along the genome can be found in patients with phenotypic abnormalities and a balanced chromosome rearrangement., ((c) 2009 S. Karger AG, Basel.)