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Toxoplasma gondii has at least 318 genotypes distributed worldwide, and tropical regions usually have greater genetic diversity. Campeche is a state located in the southeastern region of México and has favourable climate conditions for the replication and dissemination of this protozoan, similar to those in South American countries where broad genetic diversity has been described. Thus, in this study, 4 T. gondii isolates were obtained from tissues of stray dogs and free-range chickens in Campeche, México, and were genotyped by Mn-PCR-RFLP with 10 typing markers ( SAG1 , altSAG2 , SAG3 , BTUB , GRA6 , c22-8 , c29-2 , L358 , PK1 and Apico ) and 5 virulence markers ( CS3 , ROP16 , ROP17 , ROP18 and ROP5 ) to provide new information about the distribution and virulence prediction of T. gondii genotypes. Two isolates of T. gondii genotype #116 and 2 of genotype #38 were obtained from stray dogs and chickens, respectively. The parasite load found in these species was between <50 and more than 35 000 tachyzoites per mg of tissue. Virulence marker genotyping revealed a recombinant 1&3 ROP5 RFLP pattern in 2 ToxoDB #116 isolates with no prediction of virulence in a murine model, while in the 2 ToxoDB #38 isolates, the ROP18 / ROP5 combination predicted high virulence. Considering all the typed markers, there is a predominance of type I and III alleles, as constantly reported for the isolates characterized in various regions of México. It is crucial to determine their phenotype to corroborate the genetic virulence profile of the T. gondii isolates obtained in this study.

Genotyping and virulence studies of Toxoplasma gondii are essential to investigate the pathogenesis of strains circulating worldwide. In this study, eight T. gondii isolates obtained from a congenitally infected newborn, a calf, two cats, three dogs, and a wallaby from five states of México were genotyped by Mn-PCR-RFLP with 11 typing markers (SAG1, SAG2 5'3', alt. SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1 and Apico), five virulence markers (CS3, ROP16, ROP17, ROP18 and ROP5), 15 microsatellite markers (TUB-2, W35, TgM-A, B18, B17, M33, IV.1, XI.1, M48, M102, N60, N82, AA, N61, N83), and sequencing. A phylogenetic network was built to determine the relationship between Mexican isolates and those reported worldwide. Six different genotypes were identified by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP), ToxoDB #8, #10, #28 (n = 3), #48, #116, and #282. Genotyping by microsatellite analysis differentiated the three PCR-RFLP genotype #28 isolates into two strains, revealing a total of seven microsatellite genotypes. Three different allele combinations of ROP18/ROP5 virulence markers were also found, 3/3, 1/1, and 4/1. The last two combinations are predicted to be highly virulent in the murine model. According to the phylogenetic network, the T. gondii strains studied here are related to archetypal strains I and III, but none are related to the strains previously reported in México. The genotypes identified in this study in different species of animals demonstrate the great genetic diversity of T. gondii in México. The ToxoDB-PCR-RFLP #28 genotype was found in three isolates from different hosts and states. Additionally, four of the isolates are predicted to be highly virulent in mice. The next step will be to perform in vitro and in vivo assays to determine the phenotype of these T. gondii isolates in murine models., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Toxoplasma gondii can be transmitted vertically during pregnancy and may cause neurological, ocular, and even systemic damage to the offspring. Congenital toxoplasmosis (CT) can be diagnosed during gestation and/or after birth in the postnatal period. The timely diagnosis is highly relevant for efficient clinical management. The most common laboratory methods for diagnosing CT are based on Toxoplasma-specific humoral immune responses. However, these methods are of low sensitivity or specificity. In a previous study with a small number of cases, the comparison of anti-T. gondii IgG subclasses between mothers and their offspring showed promising results for CT diagnosis and prognosis. Thus, in this work, we analyzed specific IgG subclasses and IgA in 40 T. gondii-infected mothers and their children, of which 27 were congenitally infected and 13 uninfected. A higher frequency of anti-Toxoplasma IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, and IgA antibodies was observed in mothers and congenitally infected offspring. Of these, IgG2 or IgG3 were statistically the most conspicuous. In the CT group, maternal IgG3 antibodies were significantly associated with severe disease of the infants and IgG1 and IgG3 with disseminated disease. The results support that maternal anti-T. gondii IgG3, IgG2 and IgG1 are markers of congenital transmission and severity/spread of disease in the offspring., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Macropods are included among the species considered highly susceptible to Toxoplasma gondii infection. Clinically, it is difficult to distinguish between acute toxoplasmosis due to primary infection and reactivation of chronic latent infection in susceptible species until pathologic studies are performed. Here, we described the clinical cases and lesions found in two deceased Bennett's wallabies ( Macropus rufogriseus ) with a presumptive diagnosis of toxoplasmosis, as well as the genetic characterization of the T. gondii isolates obtained from these specimens. Both animals presented acute infection lesions in the lungs, liver, spleen and lymph nodes associated to T. gondii infection. Histopathology and immunohistochemistry also demonstrated tissue cysts of different sizes, indicating that the wallabies were previously infected with this parasite. Two isolates were obtained, one from each specimen and the molecular characterization was done; both isolates were the ToxoDB #116 genotype. This is the first study that reports the isolation of this particular genotype outside South America, and given the histopathological findings, it could be considered virulent for this species. The dynamics of infection that T. gondii is causing in definitive and intermediate hosts in a region allows us to know the risks to which the animals and humans that live in the area are exposed, and in the future to implement a preventive medicine plan against this parasite., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Valenzuela-Moreno, Carmona-Muciño, Cedillo-Peláez, Rico-Torres, Luna-Pastén, Hernández-Rodríguez and Caballero-Ortega.)

Toxoplasma gondii  infection can trigger autoreactivity by different mechanisms. In the case of ocular toxoplasmosis, disruption of the blood-retinal barrier may cause exposure of confined retinal antigens such as recoverin. Besides, cross-reactivity can be induced by molecular mimicry of parasite antigens like HSP70, which shares 76% identity with the human ortholog. Autoreactivity can be a determining factor of clinical manifestations in the eye and in the central nervous system. We performed a prospective observational study to determine the presence of autoantibodies against recoverin and HSP70 by indirect ELISA in the serum of 65 patients with ocular, neuro-ophthalmic and congenital cerebral toxoplasmosis. We found systemic autoantibodies against recoverin and HSP70 in 33.8% and 15.6% of individuals, respectively. The presence of autoantibodies in cases of OT may be related to the severity of clinical manifestations, while in cases with CNS involvement they may have a protective role. Unexpectedly, anti-recoverin antibodies were found in patients with cerebral involvement, without ocular toxoplasmosis; therefore, we analyzed and proved cross-reactivity between recoverin and a brain antigen, hippocalcin, so the immunological phenomenon occurring in one immune-privileged organ (e.g. the central nervous system) could affect the environment of another (egg. the eye)., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Goldberg-Murow, Cedillo-Peláez, Concha-del-Río, Cheja-Kalb, Salgar-Henao, Orozco-Velasco, Luna-Pastén, Gómez-Chávez, Ibarra and Correa.)

Toxoplasma gondii is the etiological agent of toxoplasmosis. Mother-to-child transmission of this parasite can occur during pregnancy. Newborns with congenital toxoplasmosis may develop central nervous system impairment, with severity ranging from subclinical manifestations to death. A proinflammatory/regulated specific immune profile is crucial in the defense against the parasite; nevertheless, its role in the infected pregnant women and the congenitally infected offspring has been poorly explored, and there is still no consensus about its relation to parasite vertical transmission or to severity and dissemination in the congenitally infected newborns. This work aimed to characterize these relations by means of principal component and principal factor analyses. For this purpose, we determined the specific production of the four immunoglobulin G antibody subclasses, cytokines, and lymphocyte proliferation in the T. gondii- infected pregnant women-10 who transmitted the infection to their offspring and seven who did not-as well as in 11 newborns congenitally infected and grouped according to disease severity (five mild and six moderate/severe) and dissemination (four local and seven disseminated). We found that the immune response of nontransmitter women differed from that of the transmitters, the latter having a stronger proinflammatory response, supporting a previous report. We also found that newborns who developed moderate/severe disease presented higher levels of lymphocyte proliferation, particularly of CD8 + and CD19 + cells, a high proportion of tumor necrosis factor α producers, and reduced expression of the immune modulator transforming growth factor β, as opposed to children who developed mild clinical complications. Our results suggest that a distinctive, not regulated, proinflammatory immune response might favor T. gondii vertical transmission and the development of severe clinical manifestations in congenitally infected newborns., (Copyright © 2020 Gómez-Chávez, Cañedo-Solares, Ortiz-Alegría, Flores-García, Figueroa-Damián, Luna-Pastén, Gómez-Toscano, López-Candiani, Arce-Estrada, Bonilla-Ríos, Mora-González, García-Ruiz and Correa.)

Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii remains a relevant topic of study, since genotypes can be related to the presentation and severity of toxoplasmosis. To date, 292 restriction fragment length polymorphism genotypes have been described around the world. Serosurveys in southeastern Mexico have documented exposure in over 70% of people and certain animals. Recently, we have described new genotypes and mixed infections in feral cats from Quintana Roo. Thus, the aim of this study was to genotype T. gondii and to describe its genetic variability, from naturally infected stray dogs of Chiapas, which has different geographical and climatic conditions from those found at the Yucatan Peninsula and the other parts of the country. Eleven stray dogs were captured and bled to obtain DNA, and then they were euthanized to perform necropsies and to collect target tissues. Diagnosis of T. gondii was done by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and endpoint PCR. Genotyping was carried out, amplifying 12 polymorphic markers and 15 microsatellites. Atypical SAG3 gene products were cloned and sequenced. All blood samples of dogs were positive to T. gondii DNA by PCR. Two isolates were obtained from pooled heart and diaphragm tissue of two dogs. Two complete PCR-RFLP genotypes were identified (type BrIII and #28). Four animals had mixed infections. A new RFLP atypical allele for the SAG3 marker was observed; cloning and sequencing analysis of this locus revealed mixed infection by a strain identical to GT1, and one type I × II intragenic recombinant. The microsatellite analysis revealed that both isolates are atypical. Thus, atypical new genotypes of T. gondii and mixed infections were found in dogs of Chiapas. The results found here and in genotyping studies in México suggest that the southeastern region favours wide genetic diversity of T. gondii and the possible presence of virulent genotypes such as those found in central and South America., (Copyright © 2019 Australian Society for Parasitology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonosis caused by Toxoplasma gondii that infects homeothermic animals, including humans. To date, as many as 287 genotypes have been described worldwide. Genetic characterization of the parasite is crucial because the parasite type can determine the presentation and severity of toxoplasmosis. Previously, we reported that the Yucatán Peninsula has a frequency of infection of over 70% in humans and other animals; moreover, there are seven species of felids, including domestic cats; thus, we hypothesized that this might be a region with a high diversity of the parasite. Nevertheless, no genotyping of this protozoan has been performed in this region. Thus, the aim of this study was to genotype T. gondii from naturally infected feral cats of Quintana Roo, within the Yucatán Peninsula, and to describe its genetic variability. Eleven feral cats were captured and bled to obtain the buffy coat; then, they were euthanized to collect target organs or tissues to extract DNA. Samples were processed by PCR for diagnosis, and ten polymorphic markers were genotyped by PCR-RFLP. Atypical GRA6 gene products were cloned and sequenced. Ten of the eleven cats were PCR positive for toxoplasmosis in blood; of these, seven had mixed infections. Also, two isolates were obtained from the heart and diaphragm of two animals. At least 23 different genotypes were detected, from which 18 are new worldwide. From the atypical GRA6 gene cloning and sequencing analysis, a mixed infection was discovered, due to one strain identical to GT1 and another to VAND. In conclusion, T. gondii genetic diversity in the region is high and different from that in other regions, with new genotypes exclusive to México and some others shared with USA and South America., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic zoonosis distributed worldwide, caused by the ingestion of contaminated water/food with the parasite Toxoplasma gondii . If a pregnant woman is infected with this parasite, it may be transmitted to the fetus and produce ocular, neurological, or systemic damage with variable severity. The strength and profile of mother's immune response have been suggested as important factors involved in vertical transmission rate and severity of clinical outcome in the congenitally infected fetus. The aim of this work was to evaluate a possible relation between the mother's immune response during pregnancy and congenital transmission to the fetus. We obtained peripheral blood from T. gondii infected pregnant woman and tested it for anti T. gondii (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, and IgA) in serum. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated to analyze the in vitro effect of soluble T. gondii antigens on proliferation and production of cytokines. We found that IgG2-4 and IgA antibodies and lymphocytes proliferation, especially CD4 + , CD8 + , and CD19 + were positive in a higher proportion of cases in transmitter than in non-transmitter women. Furthermore, IgG2-3 and IgA anti- Toxoplasma antibody levels were higher in those mothers who transmitted the infection than in those who did not. Interestingly, a higher proportion of positive cases to IFN-γ and negatives to the immunoregulatory cytokine TGF-β, were related to T. gondii vertical transmission. Our descriptive results are consistent with the paradoxical previous observations in murine models of congenital toxoplasmosis, which suggest that an increased immune response that protects the mothers from a disseminated or severe disease, and should protect the fetus from infection, is positively related to parasite transmission.

Diagnostic tests for toxoplasmosis are based on serological techniques due to their high sensitivity. Some IgG subclasses are related to clinical outcome in the congenital form. In this work, we determined the levels of IgG, IgA, IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4 anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in paired saliva and serum samples from 91 women by indirect ELISA using a crude extract of the RH strain. The levels of IgA, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4 antibodies and, to a lesser extent, IgG1 did not correlate between saliva and serum, that is, most cases that were positive for one Ig class in a sample were negative or very low in the other, and vice versa. We also observed that most samples of saliva that were positive for one IgG subclass were also positive for at least 2 of the other 3; this contrasted with findings in serum, wherein each person was positive almost exclusively for one subclass, as demonstrated before by us and other researchers. Although these findings are disappointing for the use in diagnosis, the richer response in saliva might indicate local exposure to T. gondii antigens without systemic infection; thus, saliva might be reflecting a local (protective?) response against this protozoan., (© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Mexico presents high prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection, including the congenital form, but there are few data about the genetic diversity of the parasite, so we attempted parasite isolation and genotyping in nine mother/children pairs with congenital toxoplasmosis (CT), living in the Valley of Mexico, who were part of a 30 cases cohort that started 12 years ago. They were recruited through research projects which included pre- and postnatal screening of congenital infections or directly CT, and cases referred to INP for management because they had clinical abnormalities. Genotyping was performed by PCR-RFLP of SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1 and Apico markers, followed by sequencing. Sixty seven percent of samples were typed for the SAG3 locus, 39% for Apico and 33% for BTUB, while Alt. SAG2, GRA6 and c29-2 types could be labelled in less cases. Type I alleles predominated, followed by II and III. We isolated the first strain obtained from humans in Mexico and found three genotypes not previously found in the world. The presence of ToxoDB#10 clonal type was documented in one pair, as well as mixed infections in five mothers. No relation of genotype or parasite load with clinical signs was found. In conclusion, we encountered great genetic diversity and mixed T. gondii infections among mother/children pairs with congenital toxoplasmosis in the mega-metropolis of the Valley of Mexico., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Toxoplasma gondii is among the commonest zoonotic infectious agents worldwide. It infects many warm-blooded animals, including felines, the definitive hosts. This parasite is now classified in 15 haplogroups spread out around the world. Few reports reveal a predominance of genotypes I and III in Mexico, although recombinant and atypical variants have also been found in humans and animals. The aim of this study was to detect, isolate and genotype T. gondii from cats of Colima Mexico, and to analyze tissue distribution of the parasite. IgG specific antibodies were investigated in 48 serum samples from unwanted and stray cats by indirect ELISA. Isolation in mice and molecular characterization by PCR-RFLP and sequencing were attempted using pools of brain, heart, liver, lung, spleen and brachiocephalic muscle samples of seropositive cats. Fourteen animals (29.2%) were seropositive, the frequency ranged between 27.3 and 40% among the different localities. Ten seropositive animals were euthanized, eight of them were positive for the B1 gene by conventional PCR. More frequently infected tissues were the brachiocephalic muscle (75.0%) the brain (63.0%) and the spleen (63.0%). Genotype III was determined for the SAG3 locus of the parasite infecting an unwanted cat. Tachyzoites were isolated from the peritoneal cavity of two mice inoculated with the tissue pool of one kitten. Type I alleles were found in SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c29-2 and PK1 loci, while c22-8 was type II, and L358 and Apico were type III. This genotype corresponds to ToxoDB genotype #28. This is the first T. gondii isolate genetically characterized in Colima, Mexico and is different to other isolations of the country., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Global warming has had serious implications on dispersion of infectious diseases like toxoplasmosis. Since the frequency of Toxoplasma gondii largely depends on climatic conditions, we studied its prevalence by means of 3599 samples of the National Health Survey 2000 (NHS-2000) and 2916 of the National Health and Nutrition Survey 2006 (NHNS-2006) serum banks, obtained from 1-98 year old subjects of both genders and all states of Mexico. Anti-T.gondii IgG antibodies were determined by ELISA and confirmed by western blot. Crude, epidemiologically weighted and diagnosis-performance-adjusted prevalence values were calculated. Seroprevalence changes were compared between both surveys and among regions (north, center and coast). Also, correlations between changes in temperature or humidity and those in prevalence were measured. National crude prevalence was 60.1% and 62.6% for NHS-2000 and NHNS-2006, respectively. Weighted and adjusted values were 62.5% and 40.0% for NHS-2000, and 63.7 and 43.1% for NHNS-2006. Coastal states and children presented the largest increases between surveys, while the center of the country showed a decrease. An apparently higher prevalence of T. gondii infection was observed in both surveys compared to that performed in 1987, while a geographical re-distribution was found from 2000 to 2006, with a positive correlation between temperature and frequency deltas in 21 states where prevalence increased., (Copyright © 2012 Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Toxoplasma gondii congenital transmission depends partially on parasite load and genotype. Both factors were examined in 4 mother/newborn pairs with perinatal infection acquired in central Mexico. Type I and type I-related strains were identified. These results add information regarding T. gondii strains prevailing in humans, although neither the genotype nor the load were related to vertical transmission or damage.

Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an intracellular obligate parasite. Its transmission has usually been attributed to ingestion of undercooked or raw meat. The frequency of T. gondii in pork, the most common meat for human consumption in Jalisco, Mexico, is unknown; in Guadalajara city high prevalence of human toxoplasmosis has been documented. Forty-eight samples of pork meat from butcher shops in Ocotlán city were analyzed. Through bioassay, 50 g of tissue was homogenized in an acidic pepsin solution and inoculated subcutaneously to previously immunosuppressed mice. Blood samples from the mice tail vein were obtained before inoculation and 7, 14, 28, and 45 days postinoculation to analyze anti-Toxoplasma immunoglobulin (Ig) M and IgG antibody kinetics by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. For histopathology, small fragments of the brain, lungs, heart, and skeletal muscle were extracted on day 45 and were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Also, DNA was extracted from the pork meat for PCR amplification of the B1 gene. Even though all pork samples were negative by histopathology and PCR, IgG and IgM antibodies against T. gondii were detected in 1 of the 48 inoculated mice, reflecting a frequency of 2.1% positive pork meat, which is lower than expected but similar to that found in other regions.

Objective: To detect immunoglobulin M (IgM) anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies and determine immunoglobulin G (IgG) titer and avidity in filter paper-embedded blood (FPEB) samples of pregnant women., Study Design: A total of 100 FPEB samples of pregnant women (30 positive and 70 negative) were analyzed for anti-T. gondii-specific IgM antibodies. Eleven and nine pairs of serum and FPEB samples were used to standardize IgG titration and avidity, respectively. Then, the correlation of avidity results was determined with 23 serum/FPEB pairs from IgG-positive cases., Result: IgM detection in FPEB was 92% sensitive and 100% specific. The titration of IgG antibodies in FPEB correlated with that of serum (r >or=0.9). Significant difference in avidity between the acute and the undetermined/chronic cases was observed in both samples. As expected, no correlation was found between IgM levels and avidity., Conclusion: The FPEB is useful to infer infection phase, and thus to speed clinical decisions in congenital toxoplasmosis management.

In order to determine the frequency of anti-Toxoplasma gondii IgG antibodies in domestic cats and to identify the possible risk factors, 169 domestic cats from 16 municipalities of Mexico City were studied. Their serum was tested by indirect ELISA and the owners answered a questionnaire about age, gender, litter box hygiene, contact with other cats, housing (indoor, outdoor) and diet. We found 37 (21.8%) seropositive cats to T. gondii with an increase in frequency related to age. Main risk factors were female gender, feeding the pet with raw meat and infrequent cleaning of the litter box. The frequency of T. gondii antibodies found in domestic cats of Mexico City suggests active transmission within an urban environment.

Anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies of all IgG subclasses were studied in mother/newborn pairs. IgG1 in the mothers and IgG3 in the newborns were related to offspring clinical problems; IgG2 and IgG3 in the babies were markers of vertical transmission, and IgG4 in mothers or children were associated to clinical problems. IgG subclasses may be markers of congenital infection or clinical outcome.

The prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in 80 domestic cats was studied in the city of Colima, Mexico, using an indirect IgG-ELISA. Antibodies were found in 28.8% of the cats, with significantly higher (P = 0.029) prevalence in southern and central zones (33.8%) than the northern zone (6.6%). Prevalence among cats fed with homemade food was higher than those eating commercial pellets (40.6% [vs.] 20.8%; P = 0.055). Overall, the prevalence of T. gondii antibodies in the cats of Colima was lower than in many other countries.

Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii were determined by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in serum samples from domestic rabbits from 3 rabbit farms in Mexico. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 77 (26.9%) of 286 animals. On the farm with the higher rearing standards, the seroprevalence was 18.7%, whereas on the farm with medium standards and another managed by a family, seroprevalence was 39.7 and 33.3%, respectively. This report is the first report concerning the prevalence of antibodies to T. gondii in rabbits from Mexico. Although the prevalence found in the present study is within the range reported for other countries, 2 of the farms revealed a relatively high prevalence, which was probably associated with the presence of cats inside rabbit houses.