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Soaring rates of systemic fungal infections worldwide underscore the need for vaccine prevention. An understanding of the elements that promote vaccine immunity is essential. We previously reported that Th17 cells are required for vaccine immunity to the systemic dimorphic fungi of North America, and that Card9 and MyD88 signaling are required for the development of protective Th17 cells. Herein, we investigated where, when and how MyD88 regulates T cell development. We uncovered a novel mechanism in which MyD88 extrinsically regulates the survival of activated T cells during the contraction phase and in the absence of inflammation, but is dispensable for the expansion and differentiation of the cells. The poor survival of activated T cells in Myd88-/- mice is linked to increased caspase3-mediated apoptosis, but not to Fas- or Bim-dependent apoptotic pathways, nor to reduced expression of the anti-apoptotic molecules Bcl-2 or Bcl-xL. Moreover, TLR3, 7, and/or 9, but not TLR2 or 4, also were required extrinsically for MyD88-dependent Th17 cell responses and vaccine immunity. Similar MyD88 requirements governed the survival of virus primed T cells. Our data identify unappreciated new requirements for eliciting adaptive immunity and have implications for designing vaccines.

We investigated how innate sensing by the mannose receptor (MR) influences the development of antifungal immunity. We demonstrate that MR senses mannan on the surface of attenuated Blastomyces dermatitidis vaccine yeast and that MR(-/-) mice demonstrate impaired vaccine immunity against lethal experimental blastomycosis, compared with wild-type control mice. Using naive Blastomyces-specific transgenic CD4(+) T cells, we found that MR regulates differentiation of naive T cells into T-helper type 17 (Th17) effector cells, which are essential in vaccine immunity against systemic dimorphic fungi. Thus, MR regulates differentiation of Th17 cells and is required to induce vaccine immunity against lethal pulmonary blastomycosis., (© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press for the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, e-mail journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Fungal infections remain a threat due to the lack of broad-spectrum fungal vaccines and protective antigens. Recent studies showed that attenuated Blastomyces dermatitidis confers protection via T cell recognition of an unknown but conserved antigen. Using transgenic CD4(+) T cells recognizing this antigen, we identify an amino acid determinant within the chaperone calnexin that is conserved across diverse fungal ascomycetes. Calnexin, typically an ER protein, also localizes to the surface of yeast, hyphae, and spores. T cell epitope mapping unveiled a 13-residue sequence conserved across Ascomycota. Infection with divergent ascomycetes, including dimorphic fungi, opportunistic molds, and the agent causing white nose syndrome in bats, induces expansion of calnexin-specific CD4(+) T cells. Vaccine delivery of calnexin in glucan particles induces fungal antigen-specific CD4(+) T cell expansion and resistance to lethal challenge with multiple fungal pathogens. Thus, the immunogenicity and conservation of calnexin make this fungal protein a promising vaccine target., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Vaccine immunity to the endemic mycoses of North America requires Th17 cells, but the pattern recognition receptors and signaling pathways that drive these protective responses have not been defined. We show that C-type lectin receptors exert divergent contributions to the development of antifungal Th17 cells and vaccine resistance against Blastomyces dermatitidis, Histoplasma capsulatum, and Coccidioides posadasii. Acquired immunity to B. dermatitidis requires Dectin-2, whereas vaccination against H. capsulatum and C. posadasii infection depends on innate sensing by Dectin-1 and Dectin-2, but not Mincle. Tracking Ag-specific T cells in vivo established that the Card9 signaling pathway acts indispensably and exclusively on differentiation of Th17 cells, while leaving intact their activation, proliferation, survival, and migration. Whereas Card9 signaling is essential, C-type lectin receptors offer distinct and divergent contributions to vaccine immunity against these endemic fungal pathogens. Our work provides new insight into innate immune mechanisms that drive vaccine immunity and Th17 cells.

Vaccine-induced T-helper 17 (Th17) cells are necessary and sufficient to protect against fungal infection. Although live fungal vaccines are efficient in driving protective Th17 responses and immunity, attenuated fungi may not be safe for human use. Heat-inactivated formulations and subunit vaccines are safer but less potent and require adjuvant to increase their efficacy. Here, we show that interleukin 1 (IL-1) enhances the capacity of weak vaccines to induce protection against lethal Blastomyces dermatitidis infection in mice and is far more effective than lipopolysaccharide. While IL-1 enhanced expansion and differentiation of fungus-specific T cells by direct action on those cells, cooperation with non-T cells expressing IL-1R1 was necessary to maximize protection. Mechanistically, IL-17 receptor signaling was required for the enhanced protection induced by IL-1. Thus, IL-1 enhances the efficacy of safe but inefficient vaccines against systemic fungal infection in part by increasing the expansion of CD4(+) T cells, allowing their entry into the lungs, and inducing their differentiation to protective Th17 cells.