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In this paper, we evaluate methodologies and null mouse models used to study drug transporter function in vitro and in vivo. P-glycoprotein and MRP null mice have been used to examine many aspects of xenobiotic distribution and bioavailability. Their advantage over conventional models is that they allow the exclusion of transporters from a particular process; however, they cannot be used to study the activity of the transporter that has been deleted. Use of humanized mice permits a logical progression from phenomena in wild-type mice via the effects of removing the mouse transporter to the consequences of replacing it with its human counterpart.

Xenobiotic metabolism and detoxification is regulated by receptors (e.g., PXR, CAR) whose characterization has contributed significantly to our understanding of drug responses in humans. Technologies facilitating the screening of compounds for receptor interactions provide valuable tools applicable in drug development. Most use in vitro systems or mice humanized for receptors in vivo. In vitro assays are limited by the reporter systems and cell lines chosen and are uninformative about effects in vivo. Humanized mouse models provide novel, exciting ways of understanding the functions of these genes. This article evaluates these technologies and current knowledge on PXR/CAR-mediated regulation of gene expression.

Purpose: There currently is no therapy that enhances the survival of patients with distantly metastatic squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Engineered herpes oncolytic viruses are effective therapeutic agents when delivered directly to tumors in animal models, but their efficacy in treating disseminated disease is poorly defined., Experimental Design: We treated disseminated pulmonary SCC in mice with an interleukin (IL)-12-expressing oncolytic herpes virus (NV1042) or with the parent oncolytic virus (NV1023, IL-12 deficient) by i.v. tail vein administration., Results: Lung IL-12 was 16.1 pg/mg and IFN-gamma was 4.3 pg/mg at day 1 after a single dose of NV1042 (5 x 10(7) plaque-forming units); levels of both were undetectable for NV1023. 5-Bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-beta-D-galactopyranoside histochemistry demonstrated viral infection of disseminated pulmonary tumor nodules by both vectors at day 1, with sparing of adjacent alveolar cells. NV1042-treated lungs showed no surface nodules at day 12, in contrast to NV1023-treated (92 +/- 27 surface nodules) and PBS-treated (225 +/- 9 surface nodules) lungs. Significantly enhanced survival was observed in NV1042-treated animals compared with NV1023- and PBS-treated animals (log rank < 0.05). In animals with a low tumor burden, 100% of NV1042-treated, 70% of NV1023-treated, and none of the control animals achieved long-term survival. NV1042 efficacy was similar to NV1023 efficacy in animals depleted of CD4/CD8 T lymphocytes, showing that IL-12 expression enhances oncolytic activity through immune effects. Histology showed no cytopathic effects in non-tumor-bearing lung, brain, spleen, liver, and pancreas after completion of viral therapy. No animals demonstrated any visible side effects attributable to viral therapy., Conclusions: The i.v. delivery of an oncolytic herpes virus may achieve effective infection, oncolysis, and transgene expression at distant tumor sites. This approach to systemic therapy combining oncolysis with IL-12 immune stimulation led to significantly improved survival in animals with disseminated SCC.

Herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase is important for reactivation of virus from its latent state and is a target for the antiviral drug acyclovir. Most acyclovir-resistant isolates have mutations in the thymidine kinase gene; however, how these mutations confer clinically relevant resistance is unclear. Reactivation from explanted mouse ganglia was previously observed with a patient-derived drug-resistant isolate carrying a single guanine insertion within a run of guanines in the thymidine kinase gene. Despite this mutation, low levels of active enzyme were synthesized following an unusual ribosomal frameshift. Here we report that a virus, generated from a pretherapy isolate from the same patient, engineered to lack thymidine kinase activity, was competent for reactivation. This suggested that the clinical isolate contains alleles of other genes that permit reactivation in the absence of thymidine kinase. Therefore, to establish whether thymidine kinase synthesized via a ribosomal frameshift was sufficient for reactivation under conditions where reactivation requires this enzyme, we introduced the mutation into the well-characterized strain KOS. This mutant virus reactivated from latency, albeit less efficiently than KOS. Plaque autoradiography revealed three phenotypes of reactivating viruses: uniformly low thymidine kinase activity, mixed high and low activity, and uniformly high activity. We generated a recombinant thymidine kinase-null virus from a reactivating virus expressing uniformly low activity. This virus did not reactivate, confirming that mutations in other genes that would influence reactivation had not arisen. Therefore, in strains that require thymidine kinase for reactivation from latency, low levels of enzyme synthesized via a ribosomal frameshift can suffice.