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How and to what degree an animal deals with potential threats is a fascinating topic that has been well-researched, particularly in insects, though usually not with the impact of parasites in mind. A growing body of work is showing how even benign parasites can affect, positively or negatively, their hosts' physiological or behavioral reaction to threats. With this in mind we conducted an experiment using horned passalus beetles, Odontotaenius disjunctus that were naturally parasitized with a nematode Chondronema passali; we subjected beetles to simulated attacks (resembling rival fighting or predator attacks) and from videos of the encounters we quantified a suite of behaviors (antennae movement, aggressive posturing, threat displays, etc.), plus rates of alarm calls (stridulations) which all correspond to the "fight or flight" reaction. We obtained behavioral and parasite data from 140 beetles from two field collections, of which half had been housed in our lab for three weeks in conditions that would be stressful (little cover for burrowing). We observed a wide range of behaviors during the simulated attack procedure, from beetles offering little resistance to those which were extremely aggressive, though most beetles showed a moderate reaction. Alarm calling rates also varied, but surprisingly, these were not correlated with the magnitude of behavioral reactions. Also surprising was that stressful housing did not heighten the physical resistance during attacks, but did elevate alarm calling rate. Importantly, parasitized beetles had significantly reduced physical reactions to attack than those without nematodes (meaning their resistance to the attack was muted). The results concerning parasitism, coupled with prior work in our lab, indicate that the C. passali nematode depresses the hosts' acute stress, or fight or flight, reaction (likely from its energetic cost), which may make hosts more susceptible to the very dangers that they are coping with during the stress events., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Social immunity moderates the spread of pathogens in social groups and is especially likely in groups structured by genetic relatedness. The extent to which specific immune pathways are used is unknown. Here, we investigate the expression and social role of three functionally separate immune genes (pgrp-sc2, thaumatin, and defensin) during parental care in the beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides. These genes reside in different immune pathways, allowing us to test whether specific components of the immune system are targeted for social immunity. To test for the evolution of specificity, we manipulated the influence of social context and timing on gene expression and quantified the covariance of maternal immune gene expression and offspring fitness. Larvae reduced expression of all three genes in the presence of parents. Parental pgrp-sc2 and thaumatin increased during direct parenting, while defensin was upregulated before larvae arrived. Parental expression of pgrp-sc2 and thaumatin responded similarly to experimental manipulation of timing and presence of larvae, which differed from the response of defensin. We found a positive covariance between maternal expression and offspring fitness for pgrp-sc2 and thaumatin but not defensin. We suggest that social immunity can involve specific genes and pathways, reflecting evolution as an interacting phenotype during parenting.