Search

This is the first detailed study on 14 C activity in the environment surrounding a nuclear facility in India. Samples of food matrices and wild plants from the off-site locations of the PHWR nuclear power plant (NPP) at Kaiga were analysed by liquid scintillation spectrometry, results were validated by accelerator mass spectrometry, and an extensive database (N = 142) was established. The stable isotope ratio of carbon (δ 13 C) in terrestrial plants varied from -33.5 to -23.3 ‰. The maximum excess 14 C activity recorded in terrestrial biota was 44 Bq kg -1 C (19 pMC). About 75 % of the samples exhibited specific activity in the range 228-249 Bq kg -1 C (101-110 pMC). Statistical tests on the 14 C specific activity dataset for 2.3-5, 5-10, and 10-20 km radial zones confirmed that the impact of the operation of the NPP on the environment beyond 5 km is minimal. The study suggests that the 14 C activity released through gaseous effluents from Kaiga NPP is transported to greater distances along the axis of the valley than that predicted by the Gaussian plume model and those reported for other NPP sites worldwide. This is due to the unique topography of the Kaiga valley in which wind flow channelling, strong winds in the valley mouth, and calm wind within the valley due to the blocking effect by hills for the south-westerly wind regime play dominant roles in the transport of gaseous effluents. The 14 C specific activity values at upwind monitoring stations located at >5 km distance from the NPP during the south-westerly wind regime were higher than those observed during the north-easterly wind regime when the same monitoring stations were located on the downwind side. The ingestion dose to the population in the 2.3-5 km radius zone, attributable to the release of 14 C from the NPP, was 0.75 μSv y -1 . This is a negligibly small fraction of the ICRP recommended dose limit of 1000 μSv y -1 for the public from other than natural sources. The dose due to the natural 14 C activity in the Kaiga region was 12 µSv y -1 , corresponding to the ambient natural activity of 230 Bq kg -1 C., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest There is no conflict of interest of the work reported in this article with any other agencies., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

This is a detailed study on oxide (CO 2 ) and reduced (hydrocarbons, C n H m ) forms of 14 C releases through gaseous effluents from the Kaiga nuclear power plant (NPP), on the West Coast of India, where 4 × 220 MW(e) pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs) are operating. The gaseous effluent from the common stack of reactor units 3 and 4 (each of 220 MW(e)) was sampled from 2017 to 2020 for 14 C activity monitoring and analysed for 14 C activity by liquid scintillation counting. The normalized release rate corresponding to the four-year monitoring period had a geometric mean value of 0.12 TBq GW(e) -1 a -1 (geometric standard deviation = 7.4), and the arithmetic mean with associated standard deviation was 0.75 ± 1.47 TBq GW(e) -1 a -1 . The relative percentage contribution of reduced form (CH 4 ) of 14 C species was less than 1.27% of the total release. The normalized release rate from Kaiga NPP was similar to those reported for the other PHWR NPPs of the world. The 14 C specific activity in the ambient air in the vicinity of the NPP was monitored at four locations. The maximum excess 14 C activity values in the ambient air in the vicinity of the NPP, evaluated by comparing the specific activity recorded for the clean air region at ∼300 km from the NPP, were 65.1 Bq kg -1 C (28.76 pMC) and 222.4 Bq kg -1 C (98.23 pMC) for the years 2019 and 2020 respectively. In addition, the release rates were calculated from the Gaussian plume model using site-specific atmospheric dilution factors and the excess 14 C specific activity measured at four off-site monitoring stations. The calculated values of release rates were in agreement (within a factor of ∼3) with the measured values., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The results of the first detailed study, involving a large number of samples, on water equivalent factor (WEQ p ), non-exchangeable organically bound tritium (NE-OBT) and tissue free water tritium (TFWT) activity concentrations in predominant plant species of the tropical monsoonal climatic region, are presented. A total of 369 samples from the vicinity of the PHWR nuclear power plant (NPP) at Kaiga, West Coast of India, and 47 samples of the control region (region not affected by local anthropogenic sources) were analysed. The WEQ p varied in the range of 0.347-0.666 L kg -1 with an overall mean value of 0.540 ± 0.045 L kg -1 . The NE-OBT activity concentration varied in the range of <9.8-60.9 Bq L -1 of combustion water (mean = 24.6 ± 11.5 Bq L -1 ) and that of TFWT in the range of 9.2-60.5 Bq L -1 (mean = 30.7 ± 10.9 Bq L -1 ) in the vicinity of the NPP. Rigorous statistical analysis of the data confirmed that (i) the activity concentrations of both forms of tritium decreased with the increase in the distance between the sampling location and NPP, and beyond 10 km, it was similar to that of the control region, (ii) the incorporation of tritium released from the NPP into wild plant leaves is not species-dependent, (iii) the NE-OBT activity concentration in the 5-10 km zone exhibited a dependence on the prevailing wind regime with respect to the NPP, but not in the 2.3-5 km zone which suggests that the transport of tritium, released into the atmosphere as the gaseous effluent, through diffusion is a dominating factor governing its activity concentration in the 2.3-5 km zone. The NE-OBT to TFWT specific activity concentration ratio (R-value) had a mean value of 0.82 ± 0.27 (range: 0.38-1.64) for samples collected from the vicinity of the NPP and 1.93 ± 0.50 (range: 1.35-3.19) for the control region. Recording higher NE-OBT activity concentration and R-value at the control region highlights the necessity of detailed studies to understand the mechanism of NE-OBT partitioning in the terrestrial environment., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A method for the determination of 14 C activity in the ambient air was optimised with the development of a simple setup for the regeneration of CO 2 from carbonate sample and saturating the absorber in <45 min for direct determination of activity by liquid scintillation counting (LSC). Atmospheric CO 2 was trapped in NaOH solution and precipitated as BaCO 3 by adding BaCl 2 . The carbonate sample was taken in a newly designed regeneration system, subjected to acid hydrolysis, and the absorber (CarboSorb-E) was saturated with the CO 2 regenerated from carbonate sample. This allowed optimisation of CO 2 absorption by the absorber (up to ~ 2.3941 g of CO 2 /10 mL with an average of 2.1688 g) and a minimum detectable activity value of 14 Bq kg -1 C for a counting time of 300 min (8 Bq kg -1 C for 1000 min) was achieved with Quantulus - 1220 LSC system. The necessity of (i) the measurement of the total volume of air sampled, (ii) the determination of trapping efficiency for CO 2 in the NaOH, recovery of 14 C in chemical processing of BaCO 3 , and subsequent regeneration and absorption processes, and (iii) independent determination of carbon content in the air for expressing the results in terms of 14 C specific activity (Bq kg -1 C), are avoided in this method. The method is capable of yielding accurate results, in a considerably shorter time when compared to previously reported methods, with a deviation of <2.2% from the target value (with a relative standard deviation of 1.1%, and a relative error of 0.53%) when ambient air samples from clean air region (region not affected by local anthropogenic sources of 14 C) are analysed. Validation of the method was performed by (i) analysing BaCO 3 sample derived from ambient air by accelerator mass spectrometry, and (ii) analysing the CO 2 produced from the combustion of IAEA C3 reference material. Upon validation, the suitability of the method for determining small excess 14 C specific activity in the vicinity of a nuclear power plant was demonstrated., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Accelerator mass spectrometry and benzene synthesis coupled with liquid scintillation spectrometry are often used for accurate measurements of 14 C activity in the environmental matrices. Thermal oxidation is one of the methods employed for 14 C determination in environmental matrices. In this method, the sample is oxidised at high temperature (600-900 °C) to convert carbon species to CO 2 and trapped in an amine-based absorber for determining the activity in a liquid scintillation counting (LSC) system. In this study, the performance of a commercially available tube furnace system (pyrolyser), for batch combustion of samples, was evaluated for the determination of 14 C specific activity in terrestrial biota samples. Significant improvements over the manufacturer specified method, which is primarily designed for analysis of samples with activity well above the environmental background level, was implemented to achieve accurate determination of 14 C specific activity at ambient background level. In the improved method, the CO 2 produced from the combustion of the sample was isolated from the combustion products through cryogenic trapping and then absorbed in the absorber (Carbo-Sorb E) through a simple off-line transfer process. This allowed (i) optimisation of CO 2 absorption by the absorber (2.2477 g of CO 2 /10 mL), (ii) achieving good accuracy and precision in the measurements, and a minimum detectable activity value of 13 Bq kg -1 C for a counting time of 300 min (7 Bq kg -1 C for 1000 min), (iii) avoiding uncertainty associated with the determination of recovery of 14 C in the combustion and trapping process, and (iv) elimination of the need for an independent determination of carbon content (%) for expressing the results in terms of 14 C specific activity. The method is capable of yielding accurate results with a deviation of <2.4% from the target value for IAEA C3 quality assurance reference material (with a relative standard deviation of 1.40%, and relative error of 0.34%). The combined uncertainty (1σ) associated with the measurements was computed to be 3.4%. Upon optimisation, the suitability of the method for the determination of 14 C specific activity in typical terrestrial biota samples of clean air region (region not affected by local anthropogenic sources) and for the quantification of a small increase in the 14 C activity above ambient levels in the vicinity of a nuclear power plant is demonstrated., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Tritium in the form of tritiated water is easily incorporated into terrestrial biota as tissue free water tritium (TFWT). A part of TFWT is converted into organically bound tritium (OBT) through metabolic processes. For the computation of NE-OBT activity (expressed as Bq L -1 of combustion water) in terrestrial plants, knowledge on 'water equivalent factor (WEQ p )', defined as the volume of water produced from the combustion of 1 kg of the dry sample, is essential. On a global scenario, experimental data are not available on this parameter. This paper presents (i) a method for determination of WEQ p by combustion method using a tube furnace system, (ii) a large database (N = 294) on WEQ p parameter for samples of tropical monsoonal climate region of the Indian subcontinent, and (iii) NE-OBT activity in terrestrial biota samples (N = 186) collected from the vicinity of a PHWR nuclear power plant of India. The data generated in this study on WEQ p serves for the validation of the data compiled in IAEA (2009 and 2010), which are estimated based on the hydrogen content of protein, fat and carbohydrates, and the fractions of protein, fat and carbohydrates. The WEQ p varied in the ranges of 0.492-0.678 L kg -1 (GM = 0.569 Bq L -1 , GSD = 1.06), 0.520-0.630 L kg -1 (GM = 0.557 Bq L -1 , GSD = 1.02) 0.473-0.633 L kg -1 (GM = 0.562 Bq L -1 , GSD = 1.02) for non-leafy vegetables, leafy vegetables, and fruits, respectively. A comparison between the experimental WEQ p data with those compiled in the IAEA report revealed that the maximum deviation between the two data sets is <10%. The NE-OBT activity in the food samples collected from 2.3 to 20 km zone around NPP had a geometric mean (GM) value of 25.4 Bq L -1 (GSD = 1.6, N = 186). Variations in NE-OBT activity with different seasons of the year are discussed., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A walk-in type 222Rn calibration chamber of volume 22.7 m3, which has traceability to international standards, is established at the Centre for Advanced Research in Environmental Radioactivity, Mangalore University, India. It has a human-machine interface communication system, a programmable logic controller and sensor feedback circuit for controlling and data acquisition of relative humidity (RH) and temperature (T). An innovative method for the generation of desired 222Rn concentration (a few hundred Bq m-3 up to about 36 kBq m-3) using soil gas as a source was adopted. Leak rates of 222Rn from the chamber for the mixing fan ON and OFF conditions were determined to be 0.0011 and 0.00018 h-1 respectively. With the exhaust system fully turned on, the maximum clearance rate of the chamber was 0.58 ± 0.07 h-1. Excellent spatial uniformity in 222Rn concentration in the chamber was confirmed (with a mean value of relative standard deviation < 12%) through measurements at 23 locations using CR-39 film-based passive devices. Demonstration of calibration applications was performed using charcoal canister and PicoRad vials as the 222Rn adsorption devices. The study shows that gamma spectrometry is a convenient alternative approach to liquid scintillation analysis of PicoRad vials for 222Rn measurement., (© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

As a part of establishing a regional database on natural radioactivity, the atmospheric concentrations of 210 Pb and 7 Be were measured over a three and half year period (2014-2017) in Mangalore and Kaiga in the South West Coast of India. A total of 99 air samples, collected in the different months of the year, were analysed in this study. The mean activity concentrations of 7 Be and 210 Pb were found to be 5.5 ± 3.1 mBq m -3 and 1.1 ± 0.73 mBq m -3 , respectively. Both the radionuclides exhibited strong seasonal variations, with maximum concentration of 7 Be occurring in the summer and that of 210 Pb in the winter season. The concentration of both the radionuclides was minimum in the rainy season. Higher 210 Pb concentration during winter was attributed to the ingression of continental air masses due to the wind regime from the North East. The sunspot number index of the solar activity also plays an important role in the increase and decrease of 7 Be concentration in the air. A clear trend of increased and lowered concentration of 7 Be with lower and higher solar activity (low and high sunspot number), respectively, in accordance with the 11-year solar cycle, was observed in this study. The temporal variation of PM 10 concentration was also studied and it showed maximum value in the winter and minimum in the rainy season with an average of 56.9 μg m -3 . Statistically significant positive correlation was observed between the PM 10 and 210 Pb activity concentration, whereas a weak correlation was observed between PM 10 and 7 Be. This is due to the fact that 7 Be is largely associated with sub-micrometer size particles, whereas PM 10 is contributed by larger sizes. The dependence of the activity concentrations of 7 Be and 210 Pb with meteorological parameters such as rainfall, temperature, and humidity was studied through linear regression analysis. A significant correlation was observed between 7 Be and 210 Pb concentrations with rainfall intensity (with identical correlation coefficients), which suggested that the removal mechanisms of these two radionuclides were similar. 7 Be showed a strong correlation with temperature, whereas 210 Pb with humidity. A comparison of the data obtained in the present study for the South West Coast of India with the global literature values of 7 Be and 210 Pb in aerosols showed that the values did not reflect the well-known latitudinal dependence of the 7 Be tropospheric fluxes. Overall, the study provides an improved understanding of the correlation and variability of 210 Pb and 7 Be concentrations in the atmosphere in the South West Coast of India., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)