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Objectives: In cancer survivors, chemotherapy-associated adverse neurological effects are described as side effects in non-targeted tissue. We investigated the role of redox-imbalance in neuronal damage by a relative low dose of Docetaxel (DTX)., Methods: The neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y cells) were exposed to DTX at a dose of 1.25 nM for 6 h. Antioxidant defenses (i.e. ascorbic acid, glutathione, and catalase) and lipid oxidation products (i.e. F 2 -isoprostanes) were evaluated. To investigate cell ultrastructure and tubulin localisation, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and immunofluorescence techniques were applied., Results: In the SH-SY5Y cells, DTX induced a significant reduction of total glutathione ( P  < 0.001) and ascorbic acid ( P  < 0.05), and an increase in both total F 2 -Isoprostanes ( P  < 0.05) and catalase activity ( P  < 0.05), as compared to untreated cells. Additionally, TEM showed a significant increase in cells with apoptotic characteristics. Immunolocalisation of tubulin showed a compromised cytoskeletal organisation., Discussion: The investigated sublethal dose of DTX, to which non-targeted cells may be exposed throughout the duration of chemotherapy treatment, induces a redox imbalance resulting in a specific modulation of the antioxidant response. This study provides new insights into DTX-induced cellular mechanisms useful for evaluating whether the concomitant use of antioxidants associated with chemotherapy mitigates chemotherapy side effects in cancer survivors.

Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequent cancer among women in the world and it remains a leading cause of cancer death in women globally. Among BCs, triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive, and for its histochemical and molecular characteristics is also the one whose therapeutic opportunities are most limited. The REpurposing Drugs in Oncology (ReDO) project investigates the potential use of off patent non-cancer drugs as sources of new cancer therapies. Repurposing of old non-cancer drugs, clinically approved, off patent and with known targets into oncological indications, offers potentially cheaper effective and safe drugs. In line with this project, this article describes a comprehensive overview of preclinical or clinical evidence of drugs included in the ReDO database and/or PubMed for repurposing as anticancer drugs into TNBC therapeutic treatments., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest, (© the authors; licensee ecancermedicalscience.)

Repurposing is a drug development strategy that seeks to use existing medications for new indications. In oncology, there is an increased level of activity looking at the use of non-cancer drugs as possible cancer treatments. The Repurposing Drugs in Oncology (ReDO) project has used a literature-based approach to identify licensed non-cancer drugs with published evidence of anticancer activity. Data from 268 drugs have been included in a database (ReDO&#95;DB) developed by the ReDO project. Summary results are outlined and an assessment of clinical trial activity also described. The database has been made available as an online open-access resource (http://www.redo-project.org/db/).

Selective phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors, including sildenafil, tadalafil and vardenafil, are widely-used in the treatment of erectile dysfunction and pulmonary arterial hypertension. They are also well-known as examples of successful drug repurposing in that they were initially developed for angina and only later developed for erectile dysfunction. However, these drugs may also be effective cancer treatments. A range of evidentiary sources are assessed in this paper and the case made that there is pre-clinical and clinical evidence that these drugs may offer clinical benefit in a range of cancers. In particular, evidence is presented that these drugs have potent immunomodulatory activity that warrants clinical study in combination with check-point inhibition.

Purpose: Lung cancer is strongly associated to tobacco smoking. However, global statistics estimate that in females the proportion of lung cancer cases that is unrelated to tobacco smoking reaches fifty percent, making questionable the etiology of the disease., Materials and Methods: A never-smoker female with primary EGFR/KRAS/ALK-negative squamous cell carcinoma of the lung and their normal sibswere subjected to a novel integrative "omic" approach using a pedigree-based model for discovering genetic factors leading to cancer in the absence of well-known environmental trigger. A first-stepwhole-exome sequencing on tumor and normal tissue did not identify mutations in known driver genes. Building on the idea of a germline oligogenic origin of lung cancer, we performed whole-exome sequencing of DNA from patients' peripheral blood and their unaffected sibs. Finally, RNA-sequencing analysis in tumoral and matched non-tumoral tissues was carried out in order to investigate the clonal profile and the pathogenic role of the identified variants., Results: Filtering for rare variants with Combined Annotation Dependent Depletion (CADD) > 25 and potentially damaging effect, we identified rare/private germline deleterious variants in 11 cancer-associated genes, none ofwhich, except one, sharedwith the healthy sib, pinpointing to a "private" oligogenic germline signature. Noteworthy, among these, two mutated genes, namely ACACA and DEPTOR , turned to be potential targets for therapy because related to known drivers, such as BRCA1 and EGFR ., Conclusion: In the era of precision medicine, this report emphasizes the importance of an "omic" approach to uncover oligogenic germline signature underlying cancer development and to identify suitable therapeutic targets as well.

Cancer care involves many ethical issues. The need for more patient-centered healthcare together with the improved empowerment of every person diagnosed with cancer have been transposed by the Italian Association of Medical Oncology (AIOM) and eventually translated in the Ragusa statement. This position paper describes the philosophy that lies beneath this document and its fundamental principles.

For decades Western medicine has followed a biomedical model based on linear thinking and an individualized, disease-oriented doctor-patient relationship. Today this framework must be replaced by a biopsychosocial model based on complexity theory and a person-oriented medical team-patient relationship, taking into account the psychological and social determinants of health and disease. However, the new model is already proving no longer adequate or appropriate, and current events are urging us to develop an ecological model in which the medical team takes into account both individual illness and population health as a whole, since we are all part of the biosphere. In recent years, the rising costs of cancer treatment have raised a serious issue of economic sustainability. As the population of our planet, we now need to rapidly address this issue, and everyone of us must try to reduce their ecological footprint, measured as CO2 production. Medical oncologists need to reduce the ecological footprint of their professional activity by lowering the consumption of economic resources and avoiding environmental damage as much as possible. This new paradigm is endorsed by the Italian College of Hospital Medical Oncology Directors (CIPOMO). A working group of this organization has drafted the "Green Oncology Position Paper": a proposal of Italian medical oncology (in accordance with international guidelines) that oncologists, while aiming for the same end results, make a commitment toward the more appropriate management of health care and the careful use of resources in order to protect the environment and the ecosphere during the daily exercise of their professional activities.

Only one case of lymphoepithelioma-like carcinoma of the ovary has been reported so far. A new case is herein illustrated in a 69-year-old woman: an ovarian mass adherent to urinary bladder dome with peritoneal carcinomatosis. Histologically, undifferentiated carcinomatous areas were intermingled with abundant lymphoid tissue. Epstein-Barr virus has not been detected either in neoplastic or in lymphoid cells.

Aims and Background: Metronomic chemotherapy refers to the administration of low doses of cytotoxic agents over a prolonged period of time with no or only short drug-free intervals. It is designed to overcome acquired tumor resistance to chemotherapy and reduce neo-angiogenesis despite a lower toxicity than with standard chemotherapy. The role of metronomic chemotherapy remains controversial, and its optimal therapeutic use has not yet been defined., Methods and Study Design: The present survey was designed as a short questionnaire and was sent to the medical oncologists registered with Medikey, a national database listing all the Italian oncology specialists linked with the Italian Council of Medical Oncology Hospital Consultants (Collegio Italiano Primari Oncologi Medici Ospedalieri, CIPOMO) and the Italian Association of Medical Oncology (Associazione Italiana di Oncologia Medica, AIOM). The questionnaire was completed on a voluntary basis and it was totally anonymous., Results: The questionnaire was sent to 3,289 oncologists, and 191 (5.8%) actively participated in the survey. Seventy-two percent of responders declared that they had administered a regimen of metronomic chemotherapy at least once. Metronomic chemotherapy is commonly used in advanced breast cancer patients, and in most cases it was prescribed after failure of at least two lines of treatment. Oral agents such as cyclophosphamide, capecitabine, methotrexate and vinorelbine were the most commonly prescribed drugs. Nearly 60% of responders was believed to have significantly less toxicity with metronomic chemotherapy than with standard chemotherapy., Conclusions: The sample of oncologists who participated in the survey is small but it appears to be representative of the Italian medical oncology community. The answers to the questionnaire indicate a significant interest in metronomic chemotherapy, which is apparently widely prescribed. This is the first large national survey on the use of metronomic chemotherapy. Considering the results, larger research on metronomic chemotherapy is strongly warranted.

Aims and Background: Triple-negative breast cancer, defined by a lack of expression of estrogen, progesterone and HER-2 receptors, accounts for 15% of all types of breast cancer. The subtype mainly includes a molecularly distinct subgroup, the basal-like subtype (accounting for 75% of all cases). We attempt to define triple-negative breast cancer and compare it with basal-like disease, review the molecular, pathologic and clinical features of triple-negative disease, provide an overview of a retrospective subset analysis of clinical trials, and outline ongoing therapeutic trials and possible paths for future research., Methods: We collected data regarding classification, molecular and clinical features and treatment, drawn from the existing literature, including abstracts and verbal accounts. By the term "basal-like", we defined all cases where gene expression array or more sophisticated immunophenotypes are used for identification. When the analysis is restricted to clinical assay (immunohistochemistry), we refer to "triple-negative"., Results: Basal-like breast cancer expresses genes characteristic of basal epithelial cells, which include high-molecular weight basal cytokeratins (CK5/6, CK14, CK17), vimentin, p-cadherin, alpha B crystalline, caveolins 1 and 2 and EGFR. The expression of basal markers (basal cytokeratins and EGFR) is related to a worse prognosis and identifies a clinically distinct subgroup within the triple-negative breast cancer. BRCA1 mutations are present in 11% of triple-negative tumors and even more rare is BRCA2 deficiency. BR-CA1-associated breast cancers types are typically characterized by a high rate of DNA aberrations and defective DNA repair pathways (the so-called "BRCAness"). The use of regimens based on DNA-damaging agents, such as anthracyclines, platinum derivatives and cyclophosphamide seems a sensible option for this breast cancer subtypes. Clinical data support a strong sensitivity to primary chemotherapy with pathologic response rates ranging from 27-45% (with anthracyclines and taxanes) to more than 60% with platinum-based triplets. However, based on retrospective data, major response to chemotherapy does not carry better survival ("triple-negative paradox"). There is no specific targeted therapy in the armamentarium: ongoing trials include anti-angiogenic agents, anti-EGFR and EGFR-TK inhibitors, epothilones and PARP inhibitors., Conclusions: A specific systemic regimen cannot yet be recommended. Moreover, only a few data are available on which treatment selection can be based. Use of the existing cytotoxic agents can be optimized for this patient subgroup by investigating the proliferative signals and the suitability of these signals as therapeutic targets, besides assessing the BRCA1-pathway in this subgroup as regards treatment. A greater understanding of the pathologic and molecular characteristics of this phenotype may lead to customized treatment for these patients.

Objective: Art therapy has been shown to be helpful to cancer patients at different stages in the course of their illness, especially during isolation for bone marrow transplantation, during radiotherapy treatment, and after treatment. The aim of this study is twofold: (1) to assess whether patients during chemotherapy sessions perceive art therapy as helpful and (2) to outline in which way art therapy is perceived as helpful., Method: 157 cancer patients attending an Oncology Day Hospital (Siena, Italy) met the art therapist during their chemotherapy sessions. The art therapist used the same art therapy technique with each patient during the first encounter ("free collage"); afterward the relationship would evolve in different ways according to the patients' needs. A psychologist interviewed a randomized group of 54 patients after the chemotherapy treatment using a semistructured questionnaire., Results: Out of the 54 patients, 3 found art therapy "not helpful" ("childish," "just a chat," "not interesting"). The other 51 patients described their art therapy experience as "helpful." From patients' statements, three main groups emerged: (1) art therapy was perceived as generally helpful (e.g., "relaxing," "creative"; 37.3%), (2) art therapy was perceived as helpful because of the dyadic relationship (e.g., "talking about oneself and feeling listened to"; 33.3%), and (3) art therapy was perceived as helpful because of the triadic relationship, patient-image-art therapist (e.g., "expressing emotions and searching for meanings"; 29.4%)., Significance of Results: These data have clinical implications, as they show that art therapy may be useful to support patients during the stressful time of chemotherapy treatment. Different patients use it to fulfil their own different needs, whether it is a need to relax (improved mood) or to talk (self-narrative) or to visually express and elaborate emotions (discovering new meanings). Some illustrations of patients using the art therapy process to fulfill these three different needs are provided.

Aims and Background: Approximately half of metastatic breast cancers expressing estrogen and/or progesterone receptors responds to endocrine therapy, and postoperative adjuvant endocrine therapy provides about a 50% reduction in the development of recurrent disease. A number of publications have focused on the correlation of biomarkers, in particular estrogen and progesterone receptors and HER-2/neu status as well as different gene profiles, multigene assays and genetic polymorphisms with response to hormone therapy. The purpose of this article is to review the literature to identify biological markers predictive of response to tamoxifen and aromatase inhibitors., Methods: A computerized literature search through Medline and ASCO abstract databases was performed, applying the words "endocrine therapy" and "predictive markers" and each of the following: early and metastatic breast cancer, estrogen receptors, progesterone receptors, HER2/neu, multigene assays, polymorphisms. The last search was updated in June 2007. In the examined literature, biological markers were retrospectively assayed to establish whether such variables were predictive for endocrine therapy efficacy., Results: The role of estrogen receptor content as a predictor of response to endocrine treatment was confirmed: benefit from endocrine treatment was directly proportional to estrogen receptor levels. Progesterone receptor status was only a strong time-dependent prognostic value, and it has not yet been validated as a predictive factor of tamoxifen efficacy. Retrospective clinical data from upfront and sequential studies of aromatase inhibitors were discordant regarding the degree of benefit of these drugs over tamoxifen according to progesterone receptor status. HER-2 positivity was associated with a significantly greater risk of endocrine therapy failure in metastatic and neoadjuvant settings. The current generation of genomic assays for tamoxifen sensitivity all contain a combination of prognostic information that it is difficult to integrate into clinical practice., Conclusions: Available clinical data are inconclusive to support preferential use of aromatase inhibitors over tamoxifen in progesterone-receptor-negative and HER-2-positive tumors, but it was also clear that lower estrogen receptors, lower progesterone receptors, and positive HER-2 are associated with lower responsiveness to any type of endocrine therapy. Tumors overexpressing HER-2 are endocrine resistant and they require the blockage of the HER-2 pathway in addition to estrogen deprivation. Recent molecular studies have shown that endocrine responsiveness is to a large extent influenced by estrogen-receptor-related pathways. In the future, the key to the correct tailoring of hormone therapy will probably be the ability to subtype estrogen-receptor-positive breast cancer.

Aims and Background: To compare conventional fractionation (CF) radiation therapy (RT), arm A, versus a split-course accelerated hyperfractionated schedule (S-AHF), arm B, versus CFRT plus concomitant chemotherapy (CT), arm C, in terms of five-year survival and toxicity for squamous cell tumors of the oropharynx., Methods and Study Design: Between January 1993 and June 1998, 192 previously untreated patients with stage III and IV oropharyngeal carcinoma (excluding T1N1 and T2N1) were enrolled in a multicenter randomized phase III trial (ORO 93-01). In arms A and C, 66 to 70 Gy in 33 to 35 fractions was administered five days a week for six and a half to seven weeks. In arm B, the dose delivered was 64 to 67.2 Gy in two fractions of 1.6 Gy every day, five days a week, with a planned two-week split at 38.4 Gy. In arm C the CT regimen consisted of three cycles of carboplatin and 5-fluorouracil (CBDCA 75 mg/m2 on days 1 to 4 and 5-FU 1000 mg/m2 i.v. on days 1 to 4 every 28 days)., Results: No statistically significant difference was found in five-year overall survival (P = 0.39): 21% for arm A, 21% for arm B, and 40% for arm C. Similarly, there was no statistically significant difference in terms of five-year relapse-free survival: 15% for arm A, 17% for arm B, and 36% for arm C. There was a slight trend towards better five-year locoregional control (P = 0.07) for the combined arm: patients without locoregional relapse were 48% in arm C, 21% in arm A and 18% in arm B. Locoregional control was significantly better when arm C was compared with arms A and B combined (P = 0.02; arm A+B 20%; arm C 48%). Distant metastases were fairly balanced in the three arms (A: 14; B: 9; C: 11), with a tendency towards more frequent isolated distant metastasis development in arm C (8 of 11 [72%] versus 7 of 23 [30%] in arms A+B). Five-year second-tumor-free survival was 85%. The 13 second tumors were equally distributed and were mainly correlated with tobacco and alcohol consumption (five lung, two esophagus, two oral cavity, one larynx, one pancreas, one hepatocarcinoma, one myeloma). Arm C showed slightly more G3+ late side effects involving subcutaneous tissues and mucosa, although significant late sequelae were relatively uncommon and the mucosal side effects were mostly transient. The occurrence of persistent G3 xerostomia was comparable in the three treatment arms., Conclusions: The results obtained with the combination of CT and RT compared with RT alone did not reach statistical significance, but combined treatment almost doubled the five-year overall survival, relapse-free survival and locoregional control rate. Patients with advanced squamous cell carcinomas of the oropharynx who are medically suitable for the combined approach should be treated with a combination of radiotherapy and chemotherapy. The occurrence of second tumors is relatively common in these patients and may contribute substantially to the causes of death.

Purpose: To compare conventional fractionation radiation therapy (RT), Arm A, vs. split-course accelerated hyperfractionated RT (S-AHF), Arm B, vs. conventional fractionation RT plus concomitant chemotherapy (CT), Arm C, in terms of survival and toxicity for advanced, unresectable epidermoid tumors of oropharynx., Methods and Materials: Between January 1993 and June 1998, 192 previously untreated patients affected with Stage III and IV oropharyngeal carcinoma (excluding T1N1 and T2N1) were accrued in a multicenter, randomized Phase III trial (ORO 93-01). For Arms A and C, 66-70 Gy in 33-35 fractions, 5 days a week, were administered in 6.5-7 weeks to tumor and positive nodes. In Arm B, the dose delivered to tumor and involved nodes was 64-67.2 Gy, giving 2 fractions of 1.6 Gy every day with an interfraction interval of at least 4 h and preferably 6 h, 5 days a week. At 38.4 Gy, a 2-week split was planned; after the split, RT was resumed with the same modality. In Arm C, CT regimen consisted of carboplatin and 5-fluorouracil (CBDCA 75 mg/m(2), Days 1-4; 5-FU 1,000 mg/m(2) i.v. over 96 h, Days 1-4, recycling every 28 days (at 1st, 5th, and 9th week)., Results: No statistically significant difference was detected in overall survival (p = 0.129): 40% Arm A vs. 37% Arm B vs. 51% Arm C were alive at 24 months. Similarly, there was no statistically significant difference in terms of event-free survival (p = 0.196): 20% for Arm A, 19% for Arm B, and 37% for Arm C were event free at 24 months. On the contrary, the 2-year disease-free survival was significantly different among the three arms (p = 0.022), with a superiority for Arm C. At 24 months, the proportion of patients without relapse was 42% for Arm C vs. 23% for Arm A and 20% for Arm B. Patients in Arm A less frequently developed G3+ acute mucositis than their counterparts in Arm B or C (14.7% vs. 40.3% vs. 44%). Regarding the CT-related acute toxicity, apart from 1 case of fatal nephrotoxicity, only hematologic G3+ (Grade 3 or higher) acute sequelae were observed (World Health Organization scale), most commonly leukopenia (22.7%). Arm C showed slightly more G3+ skin, s.c. tissue, and mucosal late side effects (RTOG scale), although significant sequelae were relatively uncommon, and mucosal sequelae were most commonly transient. The occurrence of persistent G3 xerostomia was comparable in all three treatment arms., Conclusions: The combination of simultaneous CT and RT with the regimen of this trial is better than RT alone in advanced oropharyngeal squamous-cell carcinomas, by increasing disease-free survival. This improvement, however, did not translate into an overall survival improvement, and was associated with a higher incidence of acute morbidity.