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Aims: Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is a multi-functional cytokine with potent anti-inflammatory properties. We hypothesized that IL-10 limits increased RhoA/Rho-kinase signaling and vascular reactivity in arteries from angiotensin II (Ang II) hypertensive mice., Main Methods: Wild type (WT) and IL-10 knockout ((-/-)) mice were infused with Ang II (90ng/min) for 14days. Additionally, WT mice were infused with Ang II and simultaneously infused with exogenous IL-10 (0.5ηg/min, 14days). Aortic rings were mounted in a myograph and concentration-response curve to phenylephrine (PE) were evaluated., Key Findings: After Ang II infusion, blood pressure responses, but not maximal contraction to PE, was greater in IL-10(-/-) mice, compared to WT. Rho-kinase inhibition (Y-27632; 10μM) resulted in a more evident reduction of PE-induced contraction in WT hypertensive mice, when compared to IL-10(-/-) hypertensive mice. IL-10 exogenous infusion prevented the blood pressure increase in Ang II-infused WT mice. The augmented PE-contraction observed in aorta from WT mice infused with Ang II was also prevented by exogenous infusion of IL-10. Additionally, Rho-kinase inhibition (Y-27632; 10μM) abolished the differences in the contractile response to PE between these groups., Significance: These results demonstrate that IL-10 counteracts both the pressoric activity of Ang II as well as vascular dysfunction associated with hypertension, partially, modulating the RhoA-Rho kinase pathway. Strategies to enhance IL-10 levels during hypertension may enhance the benefits provided by regular treatments., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and ROS (reactive oxygen species) are excessively produced in endotoxaemia. However, attempting to inhibit all of these inflammatory signalling pathways at the same time in order to prevent endotoxaemia is difficult. In a previous study we observed that activation of P2X7 receptors elicited the release of IL (interleukin)-1β from LPS (lipopolysaccharide)-incubated vessels. In the present study, we hypothesize that P2X7 receptor activation is the initial event leading to vascular dysfunction following LPS treatment. LPS-induced decreases in MAP (mean arterial pressure) and pressor responses to NE (noradrenaline) were attenuated in P2X7KO (P2X7-knockout) mice. Hyporeactivity in response to PE (phenylephrine) in isolated mesenteric arteries by LPS treatment was also observed in C57BL/6 [WT (wild-type)] mice, which was prevented by IL1ra (IL-1 receptor antagonist), L-NAME (N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester) and indomethacin and in P2X7KO mice. In addition, treatment with IL1ra plus L-NAME produced an additive inhibition of LPS-induced vascular hyporeactivity, suggesting different signalling pathways between IL-1β and NOS (NO synthase). LPS-induced plasma levels of IL-1β, TNFα (tumour necrosis factor α), IL-10, vascular eNOS (endothelial NOS) and COX2 (cyclo-oxygenase 2) protein expression, as determined by ELISA and Western blot, observed in WT mice were inhibited by IL1ra and in P2X7KO mice. These results suggest that P2X7 receptor activation involves an initial upstream mechanism of LPS-induced vascular dysfunction, which is associated with IL-1β-mediated eNOS, COX2 activation and TNFα release.

TNF-α is a proinflammatory cytokine and is an important mediator of maternal endothelial dysfunction leading to preeclampsia. In this study, we tested whether IL-10 protects against TNF-α-induced endothelial dysfunction in murine aorta. In in vitro experiments, aortic rings of C57BL/6 female mice were incubated in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium in the presence of either vehicle (distilled H(2)O), TNF-α (4 nmol/l), or recombinant mouse IL-10 (300 ng/ml) or in the presence of both TNF-α and IL-10 for 22 h at 37°C. In in vivo experiments C57BL6/IL-10 knockout female mice were treated with saline or TNF-α (220 ng·kg(-1)·day(-1)) for 14 days. Aortic rings were isolated from in vitro and in vivo experiments and mounted in a wire myograph (Danish Myotech) and stretched to a tension of 5 mN. Endothelium-dependent relaxation was assessed by constructing cumulative concentration-response curves to acetylcholine (ACh, 0.001-10 μmol/l) during phenylephrine (10 μmol/l)-induced contraction. As a result, overnight exposure of aortic rings to TNF-α resulted in significant blunted maximal relaxing responses (E(max)) to ACh compared with untreated rings (22 ± 4 vs. 82 ± 3%, respectively). IL-10 knockout mice treated with TNF-α showed significant impairment in ACh responses (E(max)) compared with C57BL/6 mice treated with TNF-α (51 ± 3 vs. 72 ± 3%, respectively). Western blot analysis showed that endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression was reduced by TNF-α in in vitro and in vivo experiments, whereas IL-10 restored the eNOS expression. In conclusion, the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 prevents impairment in endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation caused by TNF-α by protecting eNOS expression.

Objective: We investigated whether a reduced activity in the Rho-A/Rho-kinase pathway could be involved in the impaired vascular reactivity observed in septic shock., Design: Ex vivo animal study., Setting: University research laboratory., Subjects: Male Wistar rats., Interventions: Rats received an intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 10 mg/kg) either 6 or 24 hours before the onset of our experiments. The effects of Y-27632 (a Rho-kinase inhibitor) were assessed in first-order mesenteric rings taken from these animals using wire myograph. The expression of Rho-A, Rho-kinases I and II, and the total and phosphorylated myosin phosphatase targeting subunit 1 (MYPT1) were assessed by Western blotting., Measurements and Main Results: The EC50 to Y-27632 was reduced from 2.10 microM (1.22-3.66 microM) (control) to 0.21 microM (0.09-0.44 microM), and 9.54 (0.82-110.30) nM in LPS-treated groups 6 and 24 hours, respectively. The increased potency of Y-27632 was partially reversed by endothelium removal at both 6 and 24 hours. Incubation of Nomega-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester hydrochloride or 1400W (a nonselective and an inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, respectively) normalized the responses to Y-27632 seen 6 hours after LPS. However, 1400W had no effect, whereas Nomega-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester hydrochloride caused a partial reduction in the enhanced potency of Y-27632 found 24 hours after LPS. The soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor oxadiazolo[4,3-alpha]quinoxalin-1-one was able to bring the Y-27632 response back to normal both 6 and 24 hours after LPS. Rho-A, Rho-kinase I, Rho-kinase II, and MYPT1 were increased in mesenteric arteries from endotoxemic rats, but the phosphorylated MYPT1 was significantly reduced. However, incubation with oxadiazolo[4,3-alpha]quinoxalin-1-one circumvented the inhibition of MYPT1 phosphorylation found in preparations from LPS-treated animals., Conclusions: Our findings revealed an impaired Rho-A/Rho-kinase-mediated phosphorylation of MYPT1 in vessels from endotoxemic animals in a cyclic guanosine monophosphate-dependent manner, suggesting that changes in mechanisms involved in calcium sensitization play a pivotal role in cardiovascular changes observed in septic shock.

Vasoactive peptides, such as endothelin-1 and angiotensin II are recognized by specific receptor proteins located in the cell membrane of target cells. Following receptor recognition, the specificity of the cellular response is achieved by G-protein coupling of ligand binding to the regulation of intracellular effectors. These intracellular effectors will be the subject of this brief review on contractile activity initiated by endothelin-1 and angiotensin II.Activation of receptors by endothelin-1 and angiotensin II in smooth muscle cells results in phopholipase C (PLC) activation leading to the generation of the second messengers insitol trisphosphate (IP(3)) and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP(3) stimulates intracellular Ca(2+) release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and DAG causes protein kinase C (PKC) activation. Additionally, different Ca(2+) entry channels, such as voltage-operated (VOC), receptor-operated (ROC), and store-operated (SOC) Ca(2+) channels, as well as Ca(2+)-permeable nonselective cation channels (NSCC), are involved in the elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) concentration. The elevation in intracellular Ca(2+) is transient and initiates contractile activity by a Ca(2+)-calmodulin interaction, stimulating myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation. When the Ca(2+) concentration begins to decline, Ca(2+)-sensitization of the contractile proteins is signaled by the RhoA/Rho-kinase pathway to inhibit the dephosphorylation of MLC phosphatase (MLCP) thereby maintaining force generation. Removal of Ca(2+) from the cytosol and stimulation of MLCP initiates the process of smooth muscle relaxation. In pathological conditions such as hypertension, alterations in these cellular signaling components can lead to an over stimulated state causing maintained vasoconstriction and blood pressure elevation.

Disturbances in the regulation of cytosolic calcium (Ca(2+)) concentration play a key role in the vascular dysfunction associated with arterial hypertension. Stromal interaction molecules (STIMs) and Orai proteins represent a novel mechanism to control store-operated Ca(2+) entry. Although STIMs act as Ca(2+) sensors for the intracellular Ca(2+) stores, Orai is the putative pore-forming component of Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) channels at the plasma membrane. We hypothesized that augmented activation of Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+)/Orai-1, through enhanced activity of STIM-1, plays a role in increased basal tonus and vascular reactivity in hypertensive animals. Endothelium-denuded aortic rings from Wistar-Kyoto and stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats were used to evaluate contractions because of Ca(2+) influx. Depletion of intracellular Ca(2+) stores, which induces Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) activation, was performed by placing arteries in Ca(2+) free-EGTA buffer. The addition of the Ca(2+) regular buffer produced greater contractions in aortas from stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats versus Wistar-Kyoto rats. Thapsigargin (10 micromol/L), an inhibitor of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) ATPase, further increased these contractions, especially in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat aorta. Addition of the Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) channel inhibitors 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (100 micromol/L) or gadolinium (100 micromol/L), as well as neutralizing antibodies to STIM-1 or Orai-1, abolished thapsigargin-increased contraction and the differences in spontaneous tone between the groups. Expression of Orai-1 and STIM-1 proteins was increased in aorta from stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats when compared with Wistar-Kyoto rats. These results support the hypothesis that both Orai-1 and STIM-1 contribute to abnormal vascular function in hypertension. Augmented activation of STIM-1/Orai-1 may represent the mechanism that leads to impaired control of intracellular Ca(2+) levels in hypertension.

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulates cytoplasmic accumulation of pro-interleukin (IL)-1beta. Activation of P2X(7) receptors stimulates conversion of pro-IL-1beta into mature IL-1beta, which is then secreted. Because both LPS (in vivo) and IL-1beta (in vitro) decrease vascular reactivity to contractile agents, we hypothesized the following: 1) P2X(7) receptor activation contributes to LPS-induced vascular hyporeactivity, and 2) IL-1beta mediates this change. Thoracic aortas were obtained from 12-week-old male C57BL/6 mice. The aortic rings were incubated for 24 h in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium, LPS, benzoylbenzoyl-ATP (BzATP; P2X(7) receptor agonist), LPS plus BzATP, oxidized ATP (oATP; P2X(7) receptor antagonist), or oATP plus LPS plus BzATP. After the treatment, the rings were either mounted in a myograph for evaluation of contractile activity or homogenized for IL-1beta and inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) protein measurement. In endothelium-intact aortic rings, phenylephrine (PE)-induced contractions were not altered by incubation with LPS or BzATP, but they significantly decreased in aortic rings incubated with LPS plus BzATP. Treatment with oATP or IL-1ra (IL-1beta receptor antagonist) reversed LPS plus BzATP-induced hyporeactivity to PE. In the presence of N(G)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester or N-([3-(aminomethyl)phenyl]methyl)ethanimidamide (selective iNOS inhibitor), the vascular hyporeactivity induced by LPS plus BzATP on PE responses was not observed. BzATP augmented LPS-induced IL-1beta release and iNOS protein expression, and these effects were also inhibited by oATP. Moreover, incubation of endothelium-intact aortic rings with IL-1beta induced iNOS protein expression. Thus, activation of P2X(7) receptor amplifies LPS-induced hyporeactivity in mouse endothelium-intact aorta, which is associated with IL-1beta-mediated release of nitric oxide by iNOS.

Blockades of cytokine and oxygen radicals release are considered to be beneficial in reducing multiple organ injury and increasing the survival rate in sepsis/septic shock. Thus, we examined the protective efficacy of N-allylsecoboldine, a secoaporphine derivative with antioxidant and alpha1-adrenoceptor blocking activities, in rats treated with endotoxin (E. coli lipopolysaccharide, LPS). Pretreatment of LPS-treated rats with N-allylsecoboldine significantly attenuated the late-phase hypotension, hypoglycemia and incremental plasma tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. Overproduction of plasma nitrate in endotoxemia was not changed but the continuous decrease of urinary nitrate appeared to be partially ameliorated by N-allylsecoboldine. However, N-allylsecoboldine inhibited the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) protein expression in the renal cortex of endotoxemic rats. N-allylsecoboldine also improved the endotoxemia-induced organ injury as demonstrated from the conspicuous recovery of marker enzymes in the LPS-treated rats. Endotoxemia was associated with renal dysfunctions as indicated by decreases in renal blood flow, urinary potassium excretion, and renal nitrate clearance. However, pretreatment with N-allylsecoboldine showed significant alleviation of these renal dysfunctions. In addition, a lower dose of N-allylsecoboldine ameliorated the mortality of LPS-treated mice. This study demonstrates N-allylsecoboldine's ability to avail against acute renal failure and increase survival rate during endotoxemia. These beneficial effects may be attributed to the inhibition of iNOS expression, TNF-alpha production, and free radical scavenging activities. However, the role of alpha1-adrenoceptor antagonism for N-allylsecoboldine in sepsis remains unclear.

This study addressed the question of whether thaliporphine, a phenolic aporphine alkaloid obtained from Chinese herbs and possessing antioxidant and alpha-1 adrenoceptor antagonistic activity, has protective effects in endotoxaemic rats and we attempted to elucidate the mechanisms contributing to such protective effects. Injection of rats with endotoxin (E. coli lipopolysaccharide, LPS) induced severe hypotension and tachycardia as well as vascular hyporeactivity to noradrenaline. Pretreatment of LPS-treated rats with thaliporphine attenuated the delayed hypotension significantly whilst only a higher dose (1 mg/kg) of thaliporphine decreased LPS-induced tachycardia. LPS significantly increased nitric oxide (NO.) and superoxide anion (O(2).(-)) levels, a response that was reduced by pretreatment with 1 mg/kg thaliporphine. Endotoxaemia for 240 min resulted in a bell-shaped time course for the change of serum tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) level with a peak at 60 min. Pretreatment of LPS-treated rats with 1 mg/kg thaliporphine significantly reduced the serum TNF-alpha level at 60 min. In addition, LPS caused a biphasic change in blood glucose and thaliporphine attenuated the late-phase decrease in blood glucose. Endotoxaemia induced multiple organ injury in the liver, kidney and heart, as indicated by increases of aspartate aminotransferase (GOT), alanine aminotransferase (GPT), creatinine (CRE), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine phosphate kinase muscle-brain (CKMB) levels in serum. These increases of biochemical markers and inflammatory cell infiltration into injured tissues were reduced significantly by treatment with thaliporphine. In addition, thaliporphine increased the survival rate of LPS-treated mice dose-dependently. In conclusion, our results suggest that thaliporphine could be a novel agent for attenuating endotoxin-induced circulatory failure and multiple organ injury and may increase the survival rate. These beneficial effects of thaliporphine may be attributed to the suppression of TNF-alpha, NO. and O(2).(-) production.

1. Dietary antioxidants are thought to be beneficial in reducing the incidence of coronary heart disease. In this study, we compared resveratrol and analogues on their antioxidation and free radical scavenging activities to their protective effects on ischaemia-reperfusion induced injuries of rat hearts. 2. Astringinin (3,3',4',5-tetrahydroxystilbene) was shown to be a more potent inhibitor than other analogues against Cu(2+)-induced LDL (low-density lipoprotein) oxidation, as measured by the formation of conjugated diene and TBARS (thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance) and by the electrophoretic mobility of the oxidized LDL. 3. Resveratrol (trans-3,4',5-trihydroxystilbene) and astringinin scavenged the stable free radical DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl) with an IC(0.200) of 7.1 and 4.3 microM, respectively. 4. Astringinin has a superoxide anion scavenging activity about 160 fold more potent than resveratrol. 5. After a 30 min global ischemia followed by 2 h reperfusion, astringinin (10 microM) significantly reduced infarct size, superoxide anion production and increased functional recovery of the coronary flow in Langendorff-perfused rat hearts. 6. The result showed there is a positive correlation between the anti-oxidation and cardioprotective activities among these phenolic compounds. Our finding together with the fact that astringinin is more water-soluble than resveratrol suggest that astringinin could potentially be used as an anti-oxidant and cardioprotective agent in biological systems.