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Background: Eutetranychus banksi (McGregor) (Acari: Tetranychidae) is an invasive spider mite native to the Americas. In 2013 it invaded the main citrus-growing area in Spain producing significant damage and requiring chemical treatments. This work examines its population structure, spatial distribution and presents a sampling plan, which will assist in developing an integrated pest management (IPM) strategy., Results: There were differences in the population structure on fruits and leaves, as well as between leaves from different flushes with fluctuations over time correlated with variations in sex ratio. No differences in aggregation at the different plant strata were found; however, immature stages showed a higher aggregation than adults, with females being the sex with the lowest aggregation. There was a high correlation between E. banksi motile forms and adult females with the total population, thus both were used as reference stages to develop sampling plans. We recommend binomial sampling of 100 leaves for female monitoring, sampling two leaves per tree on 25 trees per transect regularly spaced along two diagonal transects, the first oriented northeast to southwest and the second northwest to southeast. To be more accurate, it is possible to survey the presence/absence of motile forms. In this case, four leaves per tree in 50 trees per transect should be monitored., Conclusion: This study has resulted in the first sampling plan for E. banksi, one of the most damaging citrus mite species described so far. The binomial sampling plan involves monitoring reference developmental stages, as well as a reasonable sample size that makes it applicable in field sampling for decisions making based on a future intervention threshold. © 2024 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2024 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.)

Organophosphate (OP) insecticides have been used to control Grapholita molesta (Busck, 1916) in Brazil since 1990. However, the evolution of pest insecticide resistance and toxicological reassessments has led to the replacement of OPs with other chemical groups. This study evaluated the toxicity of the insecticides abamectin + cyantraniliprole (1.1 + 3.7 g a.i./100 L-1), acetamiprid + etofenproxi (9.1 + 16.5 g a.i./100 L-1), emamectin benzoate (0.5 g a.i./100 L-1), Sophora flavescens (Fabales: Fabaceae) (22.8 g a.i./100 L-1), phosmet (87.5 g a.i./100 L-1), and indoxacarb (11.2 g a.i./100 L-1) to eggs, larvae, and adults of G. molesta. Additionally, the residual activity of these insecticides in apple orchards was assessed, and the diagnostic concentration for resistance monitoring was estimated using LC99 values (Lethal Concentration that causes 99% mortality in a susceptible population). In larval studies, all insecticides resulted in mortality rates of more than 90%. The insecticide acetamiprid + etofenproxi reduced larval hatching by 99%. This insecticide with phosmet and Sophora flavescens caused over 80% adult mortality and had a 14-day residual activity in apple orchards. The estimated LC99 (μg.ml-1) for resistance monitoring were 1.75 (indoxacarb), 6.45 (metaflumizone), 9.10 (acetamiprid + etofenproxi), 9.67 (Sophora flavescens), 36.13 (phosmet), and 45.61 (abamectin + cyantraniliprole). The insecticides evaluated have high toxicity for G. molesta, being new tools for integrated pest management and for insecticide resistance management in apple orchards., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

This study characterized 52 isolates of Monilinia fructicola from peach and nectarine orchards for their multiresistance patterns to thiophanate-methyl (TF), tebuconazole (TEB), and azoxystrobin (AZO) using in vitro sensitivity assays and molecular analysis. The radial growth of M. fructicola isolates was measured on media amended with a single discriminatory dose of 1 μg/ml for TF and AZO and 0.3 μg/ml for TEB. Cyt b , CYP51 , and β- tubulin were tested for point mutations that confer resistance to quinone outside inhibitors (QoIs), demethylation inhibitors (DMIs), and methyl benzimidazole carbamates (MBCs), respectively. Eight phenotypes were identified, including isolates with single, double, and triple in vitro resistance to QoI, MBC, and DMI fungicides. All resistant phenotypes to TF and TEB presented the H6Y mutation in β -tubulin and the G641S mutation in CYP51 . None of the point mutations typically linked to QoI resistance were present in the Monilinia isolates examined. Moreover, fitness of the M. fructicola phenotypes was examined in vitro and in detached fruit assays. Phenotypes with single resistance displayed equal fitness in vitro and in fruit assays compared with the wild type. In contrast, the dual- and triple-resistance phenotypes suffered fitness penalties based on osmotic sensitivity and aggressiveness on peach fruit. In this study, multiple resistance to MBC, DMI, and QoI fungicide groups was confirmed in M. fructicola . Results suggest that Monilinia populations with multiple resistance phenotypes are likely to be less competitive in the field than those with single resistance, thereby impeding their establishment over time and facilitating disease management., Competing Interests: The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

To assess the effects of sublethal concentrations of 3 acaricides-Bifenazate, Etoxazole, and Azocyclotin-on the development and reproduction of Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) and Polyphagotarsonemus latus Banks. Our results indicated that the LC20 values of Bifenazate, Etoxazole, and Azocyclotin against T. urticae are 3.196, 25.249, and 32.387 mg/L, and against P. latus to be 18.058, 4.641, and 13.755 mg/L, respectively. Sublethal concentrations of these acaricides significantly impacted the development time, lifespan, and fecundity of both mite species. Among the acaricides, Azocyclotin significantly extended the immature developmental period of T. urticae and P. latus. All acaricides reduced the lifespan and fecundity of both species, with Etoxazole having the most substantial impact on the daily fecundity and reproductive of T. urticae. The intrinsic rates of natural increase (rm) for T. urticae exposed to Bifenazate, Etoxazole, and Azocyclotin were 0.17, -0.04, and 0.20, respectively. For P. latus, the rm values were 0.27, 0.23, and 0.25, respectively. These results suggest that under the exposure of sublethal acaricides, P. latus gained a competitive advantage in population competition. These findings underscore the importance of understanding the differential impacts of acaricides on various mite species to develop effective pest management strategies., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

In India, the shot-hole borer, Euwallacea fornicates, commonly known as the tea borer, infests the galleries of tea plant twigs under natural conditions and is a major pest of tea. The current investigation focuses on the antagonistic ability of Bacillus subtilis to directly inhibit the growth of plant pathogens in two different climatic regions of tea-growing area. The evaluation reveals that (a) B. subtilis can directly suppress the growth of plant pathogens (b) in the in vitro evaluation; the B. subtilis suppressed the growth of the Fusarium ambrossium, which is the nourishment for the ambrosia beetle, (c) it also revealed that the antagonistic microbes and the entomopathogens are able to control the pest population of the shot hole borer of tea. The impact of B. subtilis on mycelial growth, sporulation, and spore germination of F. ambrosium in agar medium was observed. In the field condition on the post-treatment assessments shows an average decline of 40% in both foliar and soil drenching. Hence, we recommend the antagonistic bacterium B. subtilis for including as an IPM for the management of shot hole borer in tea., (© 2024 Wiley‐VCH GmbH.)

The clover seed weevil, Tychius picirostris Fabricius (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is a major pest in Oregon white clover seed crops. Reliance on synthetic pyrethroid insecticides and limited availability of diverse modes of action (MoAs) has increased insecticide resistance selection in regional T. picirostris populations, emphasizing the need to evaluate novel chemistries and rotational strategies for effective insecticide resistance management (IRM). The efficacy of 8 foliar insecticide formulations for managing T. picirostris adult and larval life stages was determined in small and large-plot field trials across 2 crop years. In both years, bifenthrin (Brigade 2EC), the grower's standard, showed negligible adult and larval suppression. Insecticide formulations with isocycloseram and cyantraniliprole active ingredients reduced adult and larval populations when applied at BBCH 59-60 (prebloom) and BBCH 65-66 (full bloom) growth stages, respectively. While differences in T. picirostris abundance were observed among insecticide treatments, seed yield differences were not detected in large-plot trials. Larval abundance was correlated with reduced seed yield, and an economic threshold of ≥3 larvae per 30 inflorescences was determined as a conservative larval threshold to justify foliar applications of diamide insecticides. Additional commercial white clover seed fields were surveyed to compare larval scouting techniques, including a standard Berlese funnel and a grower's do-it-yourself funnel. Both larval extraction techniques were correlated and provided similar estimates of larval abundance. These findings demonstrate new MoAs, optimal insecticide application timing, and larval monitoring methods that can be incorporated into an effective T. picirostris IRM program in white clover seed crops., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Tea leaf spot caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae is a newly discovered fungal disease in southwest China. Due to a lack of knowledge of its epidemiology and control strategies, the disease has a marked impact on tea yield and quality. Pyriofenone is a new fungicide belonging to the aryl phenyl ketone fungicide group, which has shown marked efficacy in controlling various fungal diseases. However, its mechanism of action is not yet understood. This study found that pyriofenone exhibits strong in vitro inhibitory activity against various phytopathogenic fungi. Specifically, it showed strong inhibitory activity against L. theobromae , with a half-maximal effective concentration (EC 50 ) value of 0.428 μg/ml determined by measuring mycelial growth rate. Morphological observations, using optical, scanning electron, and transmission electron microscopy, revealed that pyriofenone induces morphological abnormalities in L. theobromae hyphae. At lower doses, the hyphae became swollen, the distance between septa decreased, and the hyphal growth rate slowed. At higher doses and longer exposures, the hyphae collapsed. Transcriptomic and bioinformatic analyses indicated that pyriofenone can affect the expression of genes related to membrane transporters. Homology modeling suggested that pyriofenone may bind to a candidate target protein of the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) transporter, with a free binding energy of -7.1 kcal/mol. This study suggests that pyriofenone may potentially regulate the transport of metabolites in L. theobromae , thus affecting hyphal metabolism and interfering with hyphal growth. Pyriofenone exhibits in vitro inhibitory activity against various tea foliar pathogens and holds promise for future applications to the control of tea foliar diseases.

The effectiveness of fungicides to control foliar fungal crop diseases is being diminished by the increasing spread of resistances to fungicides. One approach that may help to maintain efficacy is remediation of resistant populations by sensitive ones. However, the success of such approaches can be compromised by re-incursion of resistance through aerial spore dispersal; although, knowledge of localized gene flow is lacking. Here, we report on a replicated mark-release-recapture field experiment with several treatments set up to study spore-dispersal-mediated gene flow of a mutated allele that confers demethylase inhibitor resistance in Pyrenophora teres f. teres ( Ptt ). Artificial inoculation of the host, barley ( Hordeum vulgare ), was successful across the 12-ha trial, where the introduced sensitive- and resistant-populations were, respectively, 6- and 13-fold the DNA concentration of the native Ptt population. Subsequent disease pressure remained low which hampered spread of the epidemic to such extent that gene flow was not detected at, or beyond 2.5 m from source points. In the absence of gene flow, plots were assessed for treatment effects; fungicide applied to populations that contained 14.3% of allele mutation increased in frequency to 24.5%, whereas sensitive populations had no change in structure. Untreated controls of native Ptt population remained genetically stable, yet untreated controls that were inoculated with sensitive Ptt had half the resistance frequency of the native population structure. The trial demonstrates the potential for management to remediate fungicide resistant pathogen populations, where localized gene flow is minimal; to safeguard chemical crop protection into the future.

Background: Chrysodeixis includens (Walker) and Rachiplusia nu (Guenée) are major Plusiinae pests of soybean in the Southern Cone region of South America. In recent decades, C. includens was the main defoliator of soybean in Brazil, but from 2021 onwards, R. nu emerged as an important soybean pest in various regions of the country. Here, we characterize the differential susceptibility and resistance to insecticides in these Plusiinae pests from two soybean regions of Brazil., Results: Except for spinetoram and chlorfenapyr (comparable lethality against both species) and a Bt-based biopesticide (more lethal for C. includens), the tested insecticides showed higher lethality against R. nu than against C. includens, but populations of the same species, even separated by long distances, presented similar resistance levels. For both species, the 90% lethal concentration (LC 90 ) values of most insecticides were higher than the field-recommended dose. Nevertheless, the field-recommended doses of spinetoram, metaflumizone, emamectin benzoate, cyclaniliprole and chlorfenapyr showed comparable control efficacy against both species, whereas indoxacarb, chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide, teflubenzuron and chlorfluazuron were more lethal for R. nu, and methoxyfenozide and the Bt-based insecticide were more lethal for C. includens. Thiodicarb, methomyl and lambda-cyhalothrin showed low lethality against both species., Conclusions: Large interspecific differences in the susceptibility to insecticides was found in major Plusiinae pests of soybean in Brazil. Furthermore, variations in susceptibility to insecticides occurred consistently among species and populations, regardless of the collection site and thus despite unequal temporal and spatial exposure to insecticides. These results demonstrate that accurate species identification is essential for effective control of Plusiinae in soybean. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Kiwifruit ( Actinidia chinensis ) cultivation is expanding worldwide, with China, New Zealand, and Italy being the major producing countries. Halyomorpha halys , the brown marmorated stink bug, is raising serious concerns to kiwifruit cultivation both in China and Italy. This study aimed at improving the chemical control efficacy against this pest by comparing two insecticide spray techniques (a conventional ray atomizer and a trumpet-modified atomizer adapted for localized spray application) in kiwifruit. In fact, kiwifruit is often grown with a 'pergola' training system, which may reduce the effectiveness of insecticide penetration into the canopy. Experiments were performed in naturally infested orchards of both Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis 'Jintao' and A. chinensis var. deliciosa 'Hayward'. Furthermore, mesh cages containing H. halys adults were deployed within orchards to assess the insects' mortality at 1, 3, 7, and 10 days after an insecticide application with two spray techniques during two consecutive seasons. In the cultivar 'Jintao', the two systems performed similarly, while in the cultivar 'Hayward', an overall significantly higher insect mortality was recorded with the trumpet atomizer (94-100%) compared to the conventional atomizer (59-78%). Crop damage was also evaluated on both cultivars, simulating the grower insecticide applications with the two spray techniques. At harvest, no difference emerged between the spray techniques, which provided a significantly better protection compared to the untreated control (12-17% compared to 33-47% of injured fruits). Further investigations in this direction are needed also considering the restriction of insecticidal active substances ongoing in the European Union and the need to maximize the efficacy of the available tools.

A novel species of Mucor was identified as the causal agent of a brown rot of Prunus domestica (European plum), widely grown in the south of Xinjiang, China. This disease first appears as red spots after the onset of the fruits. With favorable environmental conditions, fruit with infected spots turn brown, sag, expand, wrinkle, and harden, resulting in fruit falling. Fungal species were isolated from infected fruits. A phylogenetic analysis based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions and the large subunit (LSU) of the nuclear ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene regions strongly supported that these isolates made a distinct evolutionary lineage in Mucor (Mucoromycetes, Mucoraceae) that represents a new taxonomic species, herein named as Mucor xinjiangensis . Microscopic characters confirmed that these strains were morphologically distinct from known Mucor species. The pathogenicity of M. xinjiangensis was confirmed by attaching an agar disk containing mycelium on fruits and re-isolation of the pathogen from symptomatic tissues. Later, fourteen fungicides were selected to determine the inhibitory effect on the pathogen. Further, results showed that difenoconazole had the best effect on the pathogen and the strongest toxicity with the smallest half maximal effective concentration (EC 50 ) value, followed by a compound fungicide composed of difenoconazole with azoxystrobin, mancozeb, prochloraz with iprodione, pyraclostrobin with tebuconazole, and trifloxystrobin with tebuconazole and ethhylicin. Present study provides the basis for the prevention and control of the novel plum disease and its pathogen., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The reviewer DST declared a past co-authorship with the author MR to the handling editor., (Copyright © 2024 Song, Raza, Zhang, Xu, Zhang and Zhu.)

Background: Phytophthora capsici is a destructive oomycete pathogen, causing huge economic losses for agricultural production. The genus Trichoderma represents one of the most extensively researched categories of biocontrol agents, encompassing a diverse array of effective strains. The commercial biocontrol agent Trichoderma harzianum strain T-22 exhibits pronounced biocontrol effects against many plant pathogens, but its activity against P. capsici is not known., Results: T. harzianum T-22 significantly inhibited the growth of P. capsici mycelia and the culture filtrate of T-22 induced lysis of P. capsici zoospores. Electron microscopic analyses indicated that T-22 significantly modulated the ultrastructural composition of P. capsici, with a severe impact on the cell wall integrity. Dual RNA sequencing revealed multiple biological processes involved in the inhibition during the interaction between these two microorganisms. In particular, a marked upregulation of genes was identified in T. harzianum that are implicated in cell wall degradation or disruption. Concurrently, the presence of T. harzianum appeared to potentiate the susceptibility of P. capsici to cell wall biosynthesis inhibitors such as mandipropamid and dimethomorph. Further investigations showed that mandipropamid and dimethomorph could strongly inhibit the growth and development of P. capsici but had no impact on T. harzianum even at high concentrations, demonstrating the feasibility of combining T. harzianum and these cell wall synthesis inhibitors to combat P. capsici., Conclusion: These findings provided enhanced insights into the biocontrol mechanisms against P. capsici with T. harzianum and evidenced compatibility between specific biological and chemical control strategies. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.)

In soil-borne diseases, the plant-pathogen interaction begins as soon as the seed germinates and develops into a seedling. Aphanomyces euteiches , an oomycete, stays dormant in soil and gets activated by sensing the host through chemical signals present in the root exudates. The composition of plant exudates may, thus, play an important role during the early phase of infection. To better understand the role of root exudates in plant resistance, we investigated the interaction between partially resistant lines (PI660736 and PI557500) and susceptible pea cultivars (CDC Meadow and AAC Chrome) against Aphanomyces euteiches during the pre-invasion phase. The root exudates of two sets of cultivars clearly distinguished from each other in inducing oospore germination. PI557500 root exudate not only had diminished induction but also inhibited the oospore germination. The contrast between the root exudates of resistance and susceptible cultivars was reflected in their metabolic profiles. Data from fractionation and oospore germination inhibitory experiments identified a group of saponins that accumulated differentially in susceptible and resistant cultivars. We detected 56 saponins and quantified 44 of them in pea root and 30 from root exudate; the majority of them, especially Soyasaponin I and dehydrosoyasaponin I with potent in vitro inhibitory activities, were present in significantly higher amounts in both roots and root exudates of PI660736 and PI557500 as compared to Meadow and Chrome. Our results provide evidence for saponins as deterrents against Aphanomyces euteiches , which might have contributed to the resistance against root rot in the studied pea cultivars.

Chagas disease is considered one of the most important human parasitosis in the United States. This disease is mainly transmitted by insects of the subfamily Triatominae. The chemical vector control is the main tool for reducing the incidence of the disease. However, the presence of triatomines after pyrethroids spraying has been reported in some regions, as in the case of Triatoma infestans in Argentina and Bolivia. The presence of insects can be explained by the colonization from neighbouring areas, the reduction of insecticide dose to sublethal levels due to environmental factors, and/or by the evolution of insecticide resistance. In the last two scenarios, a proportion of the insects is not killed by insecticide and gives rise to residual populations. This article focuses on the toxicological processes associated with these scenarios in triatomines. Sublethal doses may have different effects on insect biology, that is, sublethal effects, which may contribute to the control. In addition, for insect disease vectors, sublethal doses could have negative effects on disease transmission. The study of sublethal effects in triatomines has focused primarily on the sequence of symptoms associated with nervous intoxication. However, the effects of sublethal doses on excretion, reproduction and morphology have also been studied. Rhodnius prolixus and T. infestans and pyrethroids insecticides were the triatomine species and insecticides, respectively, mainly studied. Insecticide resistance is an evolutionary phenomenon in which the insecticide acts as a selective force, concentrating on the insect population's pre-existing traits that confer resistance. This leads to a reduction in the susceptibility to the insecticide, which was previously effective in controlling this species. The evolution of resistance in triatomines received little attention before the 2000s, but after the detection of the first focus of resistance associated with chemical control failures in T. infestans from Argentina in 2002, the study of resistance increased remarkably. A significant number of works have studied the geographical distribution, the resistance mechanisms, the biological modifications associated with resistance, the environmental influences and the genetic of T. infestans resistant to pyrethroid insecticides. Currently, studies of insecticide resistance are gradually being extended to other areas and other species. The aim of this article was to review the knowledge on both phenomena (sublethal effects and insecticide resistance) in triatomines. For a better understanding of this article, some concepts and processes related to insect-insecticide interactions, individual and population toxicology and evolutionary biology are briefly reviewed. Finally, possible future lines of research in triatomine toxicology are discussed., (© 2024 Royal Entomological Society.)

Mexico is the 8 th largest producer of tomatoes. Meloidogyne enterolobii is reported in Sinaloa, affecting tomato cultivars with genetic resistance to Meloidogyne spp. We aimed to evaluate field applications of fluopyram, fluensulfone, and fluazaindolizine treatments for managing M. enterolobii on tomatoes. Experiments were set on raised beds in a shade house. Nematicides were applied via drip irrigation. Under fluopyram treatment, M. enterolobii did not reduce the number of extra-large-size fruits. The number of large-size fruits with fluopyram and fluazaindolizine plus fluopyram treatments was also unaffected by M. enterolobii . Yield from the treatments fluopyram, fluazaindolizine plus fluopyram, and fluensulfone plus fluopyram was similar to the control treatment without M. enterolobii . Finally, fluazaindolizine plus fluopyram, fluopyram, and fluensulfone plus fluopyram treatments showed the highest reduction of root galling. We conclude that the fluopyram was more effective as an individual treatment. Pre-plant applications of fluensulfone and fluazaindolizine reduced the damage to the plant and the loss of yield; however, the complementary application of fluorinated nematicides improved the management of M. enterolobii in the tomato crop., (© 2024 R. Castro-López et al., published by Sciendo.)

Most field corn in the United States receives a neonicotinoid seed treatment for the management of early-season, soil-dwelling insect pests. Grubs of Maladera formosae (Brenske) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) have been reported feeding on young field corn with both low and high rates of clothianidin seed treatments in Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio. Anecdotally, these infestations are restricted to sandy soils in the region. The purpose of this study was to (1) evaluate whether grub populations in corn are restricted to sandy soils, (2) assess whether soil type influences M. formosae survival, and (3) determine whether soil type affects clothianidin uptake by the plant, possibly explaining the observed differences in M. formosae abundance by soil type. We observed nearly 10-times more grubs in sand (>80% sand content) than loam (<80% sand content) soil within a single corn field. Grub survival to adult was not influenced by soil type. We then compared the concentrations of clothianidin seed treatment in the roots and shoots of corn seedlings grown in either sand or loam soil over time. Similar amounts of the active ingredient were found in the roots and shoots of corn grown in both soil types. Within 2 week, the clothianidin concentrations in both soil types had significantly declined in roots and shoots and were no different from the no-insecticide control. These findings suggest that factors other than insecticide exposure contribute to the higher abundance of M. formosae larvae in sand relative to loam soils, even within the same field., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America 2024.)

Pecan ( Carya illinoinensis ) is a valuable crop in the southern United States. Scab (caused by Venturia effusa ) is a major biotic constraint to pecan production in the southeastern region and requires 10 to 15 or more fungicide applications for control. Spray application relies on large standard radial airflow air blast sprayers (SSs). Some SSs have been adapted to include a volute on one side to project spray higher into the canopy because of a decline in coverage with height. A grower-designed and engineered double volute-generated focused airflow air blast sprayer (DVS) was assessed for scab control and spray coverage compared with an SS. Over three seasons, on foliage and fruit, scab control was either equal to or superior using the DVS sprayer. On mature fruit, in 2017, scab severity on the control was 9.07%, on the DVS it was 0.19%, and on the SS it was 0.24%; in 2018 severity was 84.4, 18.4, and 29.1%, respectively; and in 2019 it was 32.7, 7.0, and 11.6%, respectively. There were no discernable gradients in scab severity with tree height with either sprayer in 2017, but in 2018 the difference was significant, with the DVS having a shallower gradient, and in 2019 the DVS slope was numerically less steep compared with the SS. Mature fruit weight was significantly greater on trees treated using the DVS compared with the SS in 2017 and 2018 but was not different in 2019. Spray coverage studies showed that the DVS sprayer had significantly more coverage at heights >13.8 m (up to 19.0 m), ranging from 18.4 to 14.1%, compared with coverage using the SS, which ranged from 7.9 to 2.9%. The slope in decline of spray coverage with height was significantly shallower with the DVS sprayer, and spray profiles reflected these differences. Disease control was improved overall when using the DVS, and the DVS provided greater spray coverage at heights >13.8 m when compared with the SS sprayer. The DVS design may offer economical, superior scab control in pecan orchards where trees are >13.8 m tall., Competing Interests: The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

Melanaphis sacchari (Zehntner;Hemiptera: Aphididae), sugarcane aphid (SCA), is an invasive phloem-feeder found worldwide with a wide host range of economically important plants including sorghum and sugarcane. Given its high reproductive capacity and ability to rapidly spread over long distances, SCA presents challenges for effective control, leading to substantial economic losses. Recent studies have identified two multiloci SCA genotypes specialized in feeding on sugarcane (MLL-D) and sorghum (MLL-F) in the USA, which raises concerns as the USA is the second largest sorghum-producing country. This has encouraged research towards identifying these two biotypes where some research has stated them as two species; MLL-D clade to be M. sacchari and MLL-F clade to be M. sorghi Theobald (Hemiptera: Aphididae), sorghum aphid (SA). This review aims at compiling research progress that has been made on understanding the SCA/SA species complex. Furthermore, this review also highlights a wide range of management strategies against SCA/SA that includes both biological and chemical methods. In addition, the review emphasizes studies examining host plant resistance to understand and evaluate the role of R-genes and phytohormones such as jasmonic acid, salicylic acid and ethylene against SCA. Beside this, plant volatiles and other secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, terpenes and phytanes are also explored as potential control agents. Being an invasive pest, a single management tactic is inadequate to control SCA population and hence, integrated pest management practices incorporating physical, cultural and biological control methods should be implemented with exclusive chemical control as a last resort, which this review examines in detail. © 2024 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2024 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.)

Biological control agent Bacillus subtilis formulated as Theia is registered for control of fungal and bacterial diseases of fruit crops. Combinations of Theia and strategic concentrations of two demethylation inhibitor (DMI) fungicides were investigated to explore potential synergisms. Bacteria were cultured in nutrient broth and combined with technical grades and two formulations of propiconazole (emulsifiable concentrate [EC] and wettable powder) and metconazole (EC and water-dispersible granule) at 0, 10, 50, 100, and 150 µg/ml of active ingredient. After cocultivation, the optical density (OD 600 ) and colony forming units (CFU/ml) were evaluated. In contrast to EC formulations, the wettable powder or water-dispersible granule formulations at 10 or 50 µg/ml of both DMIs did not affect vegetative cell growth. The mixture of Theia and each formulated DMI at 50 µg/ml of active ingredient resulted in a significant reduction of Monilinia fructicola lesion development on apple, Colletotrichum siamense lesion development on cherry, and Botrytis cinerea lesion development on cherry. The combination of Theia with EC formulations showed weaker disease reduction due to antagonism. Only Theia plus non-EC formulated propiconazole and metconazole significantly reduced brown rot disease incidence of apple compared with the respective solo treatments and anthracnose disease incidence of cherry compared with the untreated control. Our results indicated that at least some DMI fungicides possess bactericidal effects depending on the formulation and concentration. The combination of Theia with a lower-than-label-rate concentration (50 µg/ml) of the DMI fungicides propiconazole and metconazole showed potential for synergistic effects, especially when non-EC formulations were used., Competing Interests: The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

Potato farming is a vital component of food security and the economic stability especially in the under developing countries but it faces many challenges in production, blackleg disease caused by Pectobacterium atrosepticum ( Pa ) is one of the main reason for damaging crop yield of the potato. Effective management strategies are essential to control these losses and to get sustainable potato crop yield. This study was focused on characterizing the Pa and the investigating new chemical options for its management. The research was involved a systematic survey across the three district of Punjab, Pakistan (Khanewal, Okara, and Multan) to collect samples exhibiting the black leg symptoms. These samples were analyzed in the laboratory where gram-negative bacteria were isolated and identified through biochemical and pathogenicity tests for Pa . DNA sequencing further confirmed these isolates of Pa strains. Six different chemicals were tested to control blackleg problem in both vitro and vivo at different concentrations. In vitro experiment, Cordate demonstrated the highest efficacy with a maximum inhibition zones of 17.139 mm, followed by Air One (13.778 mm), Profiler (10.167 mm), Blue Copper (7.7778 mm), Spot Fix (7.6689 mm), and Strider (7.0667 mm). In vivo , Cordate maintained its effectiveness with the lowest disease incidence of 14.76%, followed by Blue Copper (17.49%), Air One (16.98%), Spot Fix (20.67%), Profiler (21.45%), Strider (24.99%), and the control group (43.00%). The results highlight Cordate's potential as a most effective chemical against Pa , offering promising role for managing blackleg disease in potato and to improve overall productivity., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (© 2024 Hameed et al.)

Beekeepers need new treatment options for controlling small hive beetles ( Aethina tumida ), a devastating honey bee ( Apis mellifera ) pest. For many years, commercial beekeepers in the U.S. have used gel roach baits off-label as a method for treating SHBs. Herein, we evaluated the acute toxicity of active ingredients commonly found in gel roach baits, including abamectin, clothianidin, hydramethylnon, fipronil, and indoxacarb through topical and oral routes of exposure against SHBs and honey bees. Additionally, coumaphos, the active ingredient of the only registered in-hive control treatment for SHBs, was evaluated to provide a comparison to the gel roach bait active ingredients. Fipronil was the most toxic compound to SHBs topically (LD 50 = 0.23 ng/SHB) and through pollen (LC 50 = 0.06 µg/g pollen). Fipronil (LD 50 = 0.31 ng/honey bee) had a selectivity ratio of 1.3, suggesting that it is more toxic to SHBs than it is to honey bees, but only to a small degree. Abamectin, clothianidin, hydramethylnon, and indoxacarb had a higher toxicity to honey bees than to SHBs through topical exposure. Our results suggest that gel roach baits and their active ingredients are toxic to honey bees and pose a serious risk to colony safety if used as in-hive treatments.

Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) released two beautiful Lilium varieties in 2020. In the same year the farmers in Gazipur district reported a set of disease symptoms on these flowers and alerted the Plant Pathology Division of BARI. Subsequent investigation confirmed the symptoms as Botrytis gray mold (BGM), caused by Botrytis cinerea . The pathogen identity was confirmed through ITS gene sequencing. A series of in vitro and in planta experiments conducted to understand the symptoms, the optimal growth condition for the pathogen, potential resistant Lilium genotypes, effective chemical treatments and potential of biological control agents to combat the disease. B. cinerea exhibited the highest growth in V8 media (88.55 mm) at pH6 (85.32 mm) and temperature between 20 and 25 °C (89.56 mm), and pH6 (85.32 mm). Screening revealed that five oriental-originated genotypes provided lower disease incidence (31.66-41.66 %), and were categorized as moderately resistant to resistant in disease reaction. Six fungicides successfully reduced mycelial growth in vitro . Moreover, Ipridione provided the lowest % disease incidence (27.11) and % disease severity (5.33) in the in planta nethouse experiment. Therefore, this fungicide was recommended to the farmers initially. Additionally, two fungal biocontrol agents Epicoccum nigrum EJS002 and Trichoderma ThC003, demonstrated effectiveness in reducing leaf lesion size over control in a detach leaf assessment technique. In conclusion, this study presents BGM of Lilium as a farmers issue for the first time in Bangladesh. It also provides valuable insights into its management, recommending specific chemical fungicides for farmers to use, and two fungal antagonists ( E. nigrum EJS002 and Trichoderma ThC003) as potential disease control agent., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2024 The Authors.)

Myxomycetes (plasmodial slime molds) are eukaryotic protist predators that are associated with wood, leaf litter, and soil in forests, where they feed on bacteria, protozoans, and (to a more limited extent) fungi. The health of crop plants is essential because they represent a primary food source for humans. However, when myxomycetes produce numerous fruiting bodies on the stems and leaves of crop plants, which is herein referred to as a myxomycete colonization, this has the potential of interfering with plant photosynthesis, transpiration and respiration by blocking out light and covering stomata. Myxomycetes are not pathogens, but their occurrence on plants can be mistakenly interpreted as some type of infection. However, this phenomenon has been largely ignored. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the taxonomic and economic diversity of the organisms involved in myxomycete colonization. In addition, the various types of myxomycete colonization reported in the literature are described and discussed, a number of images provided, and cultural and chemical prevention and control measures are summarized. The latter should be of significant relevance for local production of crops and plant protective stations. While myxomycetes are not pathogens of crop plants, some species can seriously impact commercially grown mushrooms. Reports of myxomycetes affecting mushrooms are also described in this paper., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Zhang, Zhai, Li, Stephenson and Liu.)

This work evaluated if strategic control based on no more than three or four annual treatments is useful to control Rhipicephalus microplus infestations on cattle when it is applied to intensive rotational grazing and silvopastoral systems with high stocking rates in subtropical areas. In the intensive rotational grazing system, three annual treatments with chemical acaricides were applied on cattle in two different schemes: between spring and early summer and from late winter and late spring. Strategic control based on three treatments with chemical acaricides from late winter to late spring plus an additional fourth treatment in summer was tested in the silvopastoral system. In the intensive rotational grazing systems, the control schemes allow to reach a significant reduction in the tick load on cattle considering a time interval from spring to autumn. However, the efficacy levels were not high enough in some specific moments, namely, the tick counts of summer and autumn (there were not significant differences between treated and control groups). The scheme evaluated in the silvopastoral grazing system yielded better results than those tested for the intensive rotational system, because significant differences in tick load between treated and control groups were observed in all post-treatment counts and when the analysis was performed for the whole study period. However, values of efficacy in the count-by-count comparison were disparate, ranging from 64.1 to 99.7. Although the efficacy values obtained in the silvopastoral system were better than those of the rotational grazing systems, the total tick load on treated cattle in autumn was not low enough (mean abundance values 25.14 and 38.14). Ticks were more evenly distributed among hosts in late summer and autumn than in spring or early summer, where few hosts carry most of the ticks. Some management strategies as intensive rotational systems or silvopastoral structures can lead to a more efficient forage use, but they imply greater tick challenge than in extensive grazing systems. In these situations, the schemes of strategic control bases on three or four annual treatments should be complemented with additional tactical treatments in late summer or autumn., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Background: Control of blackleg disease of canola caused by the fungus Leptosphaeria maculans relies on strategies such as the inhibition of growth with fungicides. However, other chemicals are used during canola cultivation, including fertilizers and herbicides. There is widespread use of herbicides that target the acetolactate synthase (ALS) enzyme involved in branched chain amino acid synthesis and low levels of these amino acids within leaves of Brassica species. In L. maculans the ilv2 gene encodes ALS and thus ALS-inhibiting herbicides may inadvertently impact the fungus., Methods and Results: Here, the impact of a commercial herbicide targeting ALS and mutation of the homologous ilv2 gene in L. maculans was explored. Exposure to herbicide had limited impact on growth in vitro but reduced lesion sizes in plant disease experiments. Furthermore, the mutation of the ilv2 gene via CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing rendered the fungus non-pathogenic., Conclusion: Herbicide applications can influence disease outcome, but likely to a minor extent., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The parasitic mite Varroa destructor (Anderson and Trueman) is one of the greatest stressors of Apis mellifera (L.) honey bee colonies. When Varroa infestations reach damaging levels during fall, rapid control is necessary to minimize damage to colonies. We performed a field trial in the US Southeast to determine if a combination of registered treatments (Apivar, amitraz-based; and Apiguard, thymol-based) could provide rapid and effective control of Varroa. We compared colonies that received this combination treatment against colonies that received amitraz-based positive control treatments: (i) Apivar alone; or (ii) amitraz emulsifiable concentrate ("amitraz EC"). While not registered, amitraz EC is used by beekeepers in the United States in part because it is thought to control Varroa more rapidly and effectively than registered products. Based on measurements of Varroa infestation rates of colonies after 21 days of treatment, we found that the combination treatment controlled Varroa nearly as rapidly as the amitraz EC treatment: this or other combinations could be useful for Varroa management. At the end of the 42-day trial, colonies in the amitraz EC group had higher bee populations than those in the Apivar group, which suggests that rapid control helps reduce Varroa damage. Colonies in the combination group had lower bee populations than those in the amitraz EC group, which indicates that the combination treatment needs to be optimized to avoid damage to colonies., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America.)

White clover ( Trifolium repens L.) is an excellent quality forage legume species with superior planting efficiency, which reduces the cost of artificial weeding and nitrogen fertilizer inputs, and has feeding and economic value. However, from June to September 2022, severe stem rot affected the yield and quality of white clover crops in Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China. The aim of this study was to identify the causative agents of the disease. Overall, Colletotrichum truncatum (6 isolates) and C. destructivum (10 isolates) were obtained from rotten white clover stems and identified based on morpho-molecular characteristics and phylogenetic analyses. Pathogenicity tests of the isolates revealed that C. destructivum had a higher pathogenicity to white clover than C. truncatum . In addition, all isolates were highly pathogenic to broad bean, fodder soybean, soybean, pak choi, and chickpea, were pathogenic to mint, and did not infect corn, wheat, or cilantro. C. destructivum and C. truncatum isolates were very sensitive to tebuconazole and pyraclostrobin, with EC 50 values of 0.54 to 0.70 μg/ml and 0.42 to 0.62 μg/ml, respectively, efficacies ranging between 93.2 to 94.9% and 90.2 to 95.2% at 600 μg/ml and 450 μg/ml, respectively, and EC 90 values of 1.88 to 13.36 μg/ml and 1.32 to 23.39 μg/ml, respectively. Therefore, intercropping of host and nonhost plants and chemicals can be considered to control stem rot in white clover. These results provide a basis for controlling C. destructivum and C. truncatum in white clover in China., Competing Interests: The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

Chinese fir is an extremely important economic tree species in southern China. In recent years, 74.5% of Chinese fir saplings suffered from shoot blight in Shunchang County, Nanping City, Fujian Province, China. Seventeen isolates were collected from rotten shoots, and their pathogenicity was confirmed following Koch's postulates. The five pathogenic isolates were identified as belonging to the genus Bipolaris based on morphological characteristics, including septate and geniculate conidiophores, smooth to slightly verruculose conidiogenous nodes, dematiaceous phragmospore conidia, oblong or fusiform conidia, and slightly protruding or truncate hilum on conidia, but the number of pseudosepta (3 to 11, mostly 5 to 8) and the size of conidia ([22.81 to 116.13] × [9.16 to 26.58] μm) are different from those of the known species of Bipolaris . A phylogenetic analysis based on ITS, GAPDH , and Tef1-α sequences determined that the five strains belong to a new species of Bipolaris , and the name Bipolaris fujianensis sp. nov. is proposed. The fungicide sensitivity of the pathogen strain Cfsb3 was further evaluated using eight fungicides. Flusilazole, difenoconazole, tebuconazole, and propiconazole exhibited high toxicity to Cfsb3, and the effective concentration inhibiting 50% (EC 50 ) of mycelial growth was 0.08, 0.20, 0.34, and 0.36 μg/ml, respectively, for these four fungicides. Flusilazole, difenoconazole, and iprodione inhibited B. fujianensis by 100% on detached Chinese fir shoots at their recommended concentrations, but azoxystrobin and thiram were ineffective. In conclusion, this study reported an emerging pathogen of Chinese fir sapling shoot blight and proposed triazole and dicarboximide fungicides for disease control., Competing Interests: The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

Tree of Heaven ( Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle) is a tree native to China which has invaded disturbed areas in many regions worldwide. Its presence endangers natural ecosystems by displacing native species, modifying habitats, changing community structures, and affecting ecosystem processes. Its invasive nature is enhanced by its high ability to reproduce both vegetatively through root regrowth and sexually through seeds. Seeds, which are wind dispersed, are the main mechanism by which this species reaches new habitats. When they germinate and develop the root system, roots emit new shoots that contribute to a rapid increase in the tree density and the subsequent expansion of the population nearby. The contradictory results about the ecological requirements for seeds to germinate and their degree of dormancy and longevity indicate the complexity and difficulty of understanding the mechanisms that govern the biology and adaptability of this plant. The management of this weed aims at its eradication, with programs based on herbicide applications carried out by injecting the active ingredient directly to the trunk. But, not many active ingredients have shown total control, so new ones should be tested in order to increase the range of available herbicides. During the last few decades, some biological agents have been identified, but their efficacy in controlling the tree and their safety for the local flora have not yet been determined. A correct management strategy should take into account all these aspects in order to contain the expansion of this species and, ultimately, allow its eradication.

Background: The red palm weevil (RPW), Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, is one of the gravest threats to palm trees. The challenge in monitoring RPW primarily arises from the inconspicuous presence of larvae within the stem, which is often devoid of noticeable symptoms. This study looks at the use of seismic sensors in RPW management in commercial date palm plantations. It explores whether the data garnered from the sensor domain, and its translation into the health status of date palms, can reliably inform precise decision-making., Results: Sensor and damage index values, as gauged by the Agrint IoTree seismic sensor, vividly mirrored RPW colonization activity. They also accurately portrayed the impact of three distinct insecticides: imidacloprid, phosphine, and entomopathogenic nematodes. The seismic values and damage index of healthy untreated palms strongly supported the decision to pursue tree recovery. Furthermore, this facilitated the computation of recovery pace discrepancies across the tested treatments, measured as the number of days required for tree restoration., Conclusions: Our findings underscore the practicality of employing seismic sensors, as exemplified by the IoTree system and its network services, to both monitor and assess palm tree health. Furthermore, it validates their efficacy in evaluating the efficiency of management strategies adopted against RPW, all grounded in a wealth of sensor-derived data. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.)

From the 992 samples of culture extracts of microorganisms isolated from soil in Japan, we found that the extract of Streptomyces sp. no. 226 inhibited Orobanche minor seed germination without significantly affecting the seed germination of Trifolium pratense and the growth of Aspergillus oryzae and Escherichia coli . Using ESI-MS, 1 H-NMR, and 13 C-NMR, we identified the active compound as cycloheximide. Cycloheximide had half-maximum inhibitory concentrations of 2.6 ng/mL for the inhibition of seed germination of O. minor and 2.5 µg/mL for that of the conidial germination of A . oryzae . Since cycloheximide is known to inhibit translation by interacting with ribosomal protein L28 (RPL28) in yeast, we investigated whether RPL protein of O. minor plays a critical role in the inhibition of O. minor seed germination. Our data suggested that O. minor RPL27A was not sensitive to cycloheximide by comparing it to the strain expressing S. cerevisiae RPL28. These findings suggest the presence of an unidentified mechanism by which cycloheximide hinders O. minor seed germination., Competing Interests: Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was supported by the authors., (© 2024 Pesticide Science Society of Japan.)

Citrus Under Protective Screen (CUPS) production system excludes the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, vector of Huanglongbing (HLB), and large predators. However, small pests and beneficial arthropods such as predatory mites may enter the CUPS. Predatory mites from the family Phytoseiidae attack several economically important pests, especially phytophagous mites common in CUPS. The species assemblage, abundance, and distribution of phytoseiid mites in CUPS and open-air (control) were investigated in Ray Ruby grapefruit from 2018 to 2020. Foliar sprays of chemicals for pest suppression were used in both systems and evaluated for effect on predatory mite populations. In the 2 production systems, a significant peak in the phytoseiid mite population was observed in February 2019 and 2020. This increase coincided with the blooming period of grapefruit, which likely provided pollen as an alternative food. A total of 2,234 specimens of 11 species were identified. Amblyseius tamatavensis Blommers and Typhlodromalus peregrinus (Muma) were dominant in both systems. Amblyseius tamatavensis was slightly more abundant in CUPS (50% of total specimens) than T. peregrinus (47%), while T. peregrinus was prevalent (82%) in open-air compared with A. tamatavensis (16%). Shannon index and evenness were significantly higher in CUPS, but species richness was similar. Chlorpyrifos with abamectin and oil, cyantraniliprole with spirodiclofen, copper, and oil as well as pyridaben alone reduced phytoseiid populations between 87% and 96%. Fenbutatin oxide mixed with copper reduced phytoseiids by 48% in open-air only. Our results demonstrate phytoseiid survival, reproduction, and contribution to biological control in CUPS, despite high temperature and humidity., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The green-belly stink bug (Diceraeus melacanthus Dallas (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)) is a key pest of corn-soybean crop systems and the management of this pest is difficult due to behavioral characteristics. However, products that alter its behavior, such as arrestants, dislodgers, and phagostimulants, have been used in an attempt to improve the effectiveness of chemical control. In this study, the effect of these products on the walking behavior of nymphs and adults of D. melacanthus was initially evaluated through computational behavioral tracking (Ethovision system). Adults of D. melacanthus exposed to the dislodgers Creolin Pearson and Quimifol S450 (sulfur) significantly increased the distance covered and the walking speed. On the other hand, the only treatment that significantly affected the walking behavior of nymphs was the treatment with soy milk (phagostimulant). The physical-chemical analyses indicated considerable changes in the pH and electrical conductivity of mixtures of such products with insecticides from different chemical groups, as well as lack of homogeneity (physical incompatibility). Nevertheless, none of the products tested improved the control efficacy of an insecticide based on imidacloprid + beta-cyfluthrin, either in laboratory tests (contact bioassay) or in tests conducted in corn crops during 2 crop harvests. Thus, the association of these products in a tank mixture does not increase the control levels of D. melacanthus in post-emergence of maize and may have an antagonistic effect in some associations., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Fusarium species are common plant pathogens that cause serious crop losses worldwide. Fusarium spp. colonize not only the main host plants, crops, but also alternative hosts. The effectiveness of fungicide use in disease management ranges from very successful to possibly promoting the growth of the pathogen. Triazole fungicides are widely used to control these pathogens due to their broad-spectrum activity and systemic nature. This paper reviews the sensitivity of 40 Fusarium strains isolated from weeds, non-gramineous plants, and spring wheat to metconazole, prothioconazole, and tebuconazole. The effect of fungicides was determined by the percentage inhibition of F. graminearum , F. culmorum , F. sporotrichioides , and F. avenaceum fungal mycelial growth. The 50% effective concentration (EC50) values of all isolates on metconazole were lower than 2.9 mg L -1 , prothioconazole EC50 ranged from 0.12 to 23.6 mg L -1 , and tebuconazole ranged from 0.09 to 15.6 mg L -1 . At 0.00025-0.025 mg L -1 , the fungicides were ineffective, except for the growth of the F. avenaceum species. It was observed that isolates from weeds were more sensitive to low concentrations of fungicide than isolates from crop plants. In general, information is scarce regarding the comparison of fungicide resistance in Fusarium isolates from weed and crop plants, making this study an additional contribution to the existing knowledge base.

In 2020, the invasive Thrips parvispinus (Karny) was first detected in Florida, United States. In response to the implemented regulatory restrictions, we conducted laboratory experiments under containment conditions. Thrips larvae and adults were exposed to 32 products (conventional and biorational insecticides) either directly or indirectly. Direct exposure was performed using a Spray Potter Tower, while indirect exposure was conducted by evaluating residue toxicity against the thrips. Water served as a control. We assessed mortality and leaf-feeding damage 48 h post-treatment. Among the conventional insecticides, chlorfenapyr, sulfoxaflor-spinetoram, and spinosad caused high mortality across all stages in both direct and residue toxicity assays. Pyridalyl, acetamiprid, tolfenpyrad, cyclaniliprole-flonicamid, acephate, novaluron, abamectin, cyantraniliprole, imidacloprid, cyclaniliprole, spirotetramat, and carbaryl displayed moderate toxicity, affecting at least two stages in either exposure route. Additionally, chlorfenapyr, spinosad, sulfoxaflor-spinetoram, pyridalyl, acetamiprid, cyclaniliprole, cyclaniliprole-flonicamid, abamectin, and acephate inhibited larvae and adult's leaf-feeding damage in both direct and residue toxicity assays. Regarding biorational insecticides, mineral oil (3%) and sesame oil caused the highest mortality and lowest leaf-feeding damage. Greenhouse evaluations of spinosad, chlorfenapyr, sulfoxaflor-spinetoram, and pyridalyl are recommended. Also, a rotation program incorporating these products, while considering different modes of action, is advised for ornamental growers to avoid resistance and to comply with regulations.

Multiple arthropod pests can affect the same crop in agricultural systems, requiring the integration of control methods. In the present study, the effects of residual exposure to four broad-spectrum insecticides/acaricides (azadiractin, abamectin, chlorfenapyr, and fenpyroximate) on immature (development and survival time) and adult females (longevity, fecundity, and fertility life table parameters) of the predatory mite Neoseiulus barkeri were evaluated. Additionally, the insecticides/acaricides were categorized according to their selectivity based on the classification proposed by the International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) for assessing the susceptibility of arthropods in laboratory experiments. Method 004, proposed by the Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC), was adopted for the bioassays with predators exposed to insecticide-acaricide residues. Among the insecticides/acaricides studied, azadirachtin had minimal effects on immature and adult N. barkeri (all non-significant) and was considered harmless based on the classification of toxicity according to the standards/categories proposed by the IOBC. All other insecticides/acaricides affected immature and adult N. barkeri and were considered slightly harmful in terms of toxicity, according to the IOBC., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG.)

The hala scale, Thysanococcus pandani Stickney, is an invasive insect that infests hala trees, Pandanus tectorius, and has recently arrived in the Hawaiian Islands of Maui, Oahu, and Molokai. Hala scale is native to Thailand, Indonesia, and Singapore and was accidentally introduced to Maui, with its first detection in Hana in 1995. The hala tree is a frequently planted ornamental plant throughout Hawaii's urban landscape and is also a native tree found in coastal areas of ecological suitability throughout the state. These trees are integral to native Hawaiian weaving traditions, as the leaves were used to make items such as sails, hats, or mats. The spread of T. pandani threatens the continuation of these practices, as the plant material may not be sufficient for weaving. Hala trees infested with T. pandani can have negative effects such as deformation, discoloration, and early tree death. Experimental field trials were set up to evaluate the efficacy of organic and chemical insecticides as potential treatments to mitigate the damage of T. pandani infestations. This was done on the Island of Maui, where T. pandani is widespread. These trees were artificially inoculated with T. pandani and evaluated throughout the trials for changes in plant height, canopy width, scale removal, and visual infestation ratings. The results of 2 repeated field trials indicated that flupyradifurone and buprofezin were effective treatments in the reduction of the hala scale infestation and improving visual aspects related to plant health., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann is an exotic and invasive tick species rapidly expanding across the United States. Large infestations of these ticks on cattle can cause anemia, and in eastern regions of the country, they are transmitting Theileria orientalis Ikeda within herds. Methods for managing H. longicornis in the environment are rarely successful and rely on chemicals. To document population effects from producer management decisions, we investigated the change in H. longicornis populations to different tick management practices chosen by producers at 3 different H. longicornis-infested farms. Farm 1 kept a closed herd, chose to cut brush monthly, used on-animal acaricides, and allowed us to drag weekly. Farm 2 kept an open herd, chose to cut brush yearly, did not use on-animal acaricides, and allowed us to drag for ticks weekly/monthly. Farm 3 kept an open herd, chose to cut brush yearly, used on-animal acaracides, and allowed us to drag for ticks monthly. We assessed H. longicornis populations responding to those methods over time using active surveillance methods at each farm. Management decisions on Farms 1 and 3 significantly reduced H. longicornis on farms. Importantly, Farm 1 management decisions reduced the chance of a tick being present by 90%; the number of questing ticks collected fell from 5,000 to 12 H. longicornis in 2 years. Therefore, combined management strategies such as keeping a closed herd, use of on-animal chemical control, mechanical control, and reducing the amount of vegetation on farms were effective ways for producers to manage Haemaphysalis longicornis Neuman (Ixodidae)., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Pear powdery mildew (PPM), caused by Phyllactinia pyri , is one of the most serious diseases affecting production in the Hebei pear-growing region of China. Iminoctadine trialbesilate and trifloxystrobin are known to have broad-spectrum activity against a wide range of plant pathogens, including P. pyri . A total of 105 P. pyri strains were isolated from 11 cities in Hebei Province from 2017 to 2019. Iminoctadine trialbesilate and trifloxystrobin significantly inhibited P. pyri growth. Microscopic observation showed that P. pyri mycelia had different degrees of desiccation and that the conidial cell contents had been released. The sensitivities of 60 P. pyri strains to iminoctadine trialbesilate and trifloxystrobin were determined in vitro, and the average EC 50 values were 0.5773 ± 0.0014 and 1.2038 ± 0.0010 μg/ml, respectively. The average EC 50 values for 85 and 75% of the strains with continuous single peak frequency distributions were 0.4534 ± 0.0012 and 0.8124 ± 0.0039 μg/ml, respectively. These data could be used as the baseline sensitivities of P. pyri to these two fungicides. The maximum difference multiples of the sensitivities of P. pyri strains from the different cities to iminoctadine trialbesilate and trifloxystrobin were 13.5- and 17.2-fold, respectively. Cluster analysis showed that there was no significant correlation between P. pyri sensitivity and geographical origin. The field efficacies in controlling PPM were higher than 85%. These findings can improve how we monitor iminoctadine trialbesilate and trifloxystrobin resistance and improve application efficiency., Competing Interests: The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

Frogeye leaf spot (FLS), caused by Cercospora sojina , is an economically important disease of soybean in the United States. Data from 66 uniform fungicide trials (UFTs) conducted from 2012 to 2021 across eight states (Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee) were gathered and analyzed to determine the efficacy and profitability of the following fungicides applied at the beginning pod developmental stage (R3): azoxystrobin + difenoconazole (AZOX + DIFE), difenoconazole + pydiflumetofen (DIFE + PYDI), pyraclostrobin (PYRA), pyraclostrobin + fluxapyroxad + propiconazole (PYRA + FLUX + PROP), tetraconazole (TTRA), thiophanate-methyl (TMET), thiophanate-methyl + tebuconazole (TMET + TEBU), and trifloxystrobin + prothioconazole (TFLX + PROT). A network meta-analytic model was fitted to the log of the means of FLS severity data and to the nontransformed mean yield for each treatment, including the nontreated. The percent reduction in disease severity (%) and the yield response (kg/ha) relative to the nontreated was the lowest for PYRA (11%; 136 kg/ha) and the greatest for DIFE + PYDI (57%; 441 kg/ha). A significant decline in efficacy over time was detected for PYRA (18 percentage points [p.p.]), TTRA (27 p.p.), AZOX + DIFE (18 p.p.), and TMET + TEBU (19 p.p.) by using year as a continuous covariate in the model. Finally, probabilities of breaking even were the greatest (>65%) for the most effective fungicide DIFE + PYDI and the lowest (<55%) for PYRA. Results of this meta-analysis may be useful to support decisions when planning fungicide programs., Competing Interests: The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

This paper explores the use of chemical control by perpetrators as part of coercive controlling intimate partner violence and abuse, defined as the nonconsenting use of prescribed and nonprescribed medication (including vaccines), and/or other substances to coerce or control, reducing the victim-survivor's capacity for independence, freedom, and health. Based on testimonies of 37 victims-survivors and nine domestic abuse practitioners in the UK we identify varying tactics used to chemically coerce and control, deepening our understanding about the continually changing forms of domestic violence and abuse and enhancing the potential for a more robust response through better informed policy and practice., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Wireworms (Coleoptera: Elateridae) are economically significant pests of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), damaging the marketable portion of the crop by feeding and tunneling into tubers. While conventional potato growers use the few registered synthetic insecticides to control wireworms, certified organic growers are left with less options due to the limited effectiveness of the available insecticides. Biologically derived pesticides provide an additional alternative for both systems. Certain gram-negative proteobacteria, such as Burkholderia spp., possess insecticidal compounds. However, very little is known about their efficacy on wireworms. From 2018 to 2021, we conducted experiments in Virginia to assess the efficacy of a Burkholderia spp.-based commercial pesticide, Majestene, as a wireworm control in potatoes. In a lab experiment, soil drench application of this insecticide at a rate of 66 g a.i. per 1 liter resulted in 30% wireworm mortality and significantly reduced wireworm feeding damage on potato tubers. In the field, in-furrow applications of Burkholderia spp. at a rate of 17.66 kg a.i. per ha significantly reduced wireworm damage to tubers in 2 of 7 field experiments conducted. By comparison, the commercial standard insecticide, bifenthrin, significantly reduced tuber damage in 3 of the 7 field experiments. Our study demonstrates the prospect for proteobacteria-derived insecticides for control of wireworms and potentially other soil-dwelling insects. In conclusion, findings present growers with another option to combat wireworm pressure, especially in organic systems., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Field experiments were conducted during the fall-winter seasons of 2017 to 2018 and 2018 to 2019 to evaluate the efficacy of various fungicides to control Neofabraea leaf lesion of olive. Field trials were conducted in the highly susceptible cultivar Arbosana in a commercial, super-high-density orchard in San Joaquin County, California. Up to eight fungicidal products were applied using an air blast backpack sprayer, and their efficacy was compared with different application strategies. Results showed that most products were effective in reducing infection by the pathogens and limiting disease severity. Overall, best disease control was achieved by thiophanate-methyl, cyprodinil, difenoconazole + cyprodinil, and chlorothalonil, providing up to 75% reduction in disease severity. Copper hydroxide did not control the disease. In 2018 to 2019, the fungicides difenoconazole + cyprodinil and ziram were evaluated in additional field trials using different application strategies (single, dual, and combined applications) suitable for pathogen resistance management. Results showed that both products provided significant reduction in disease severity (∼50%), although no differences in efficacy were found between the two products nor between the different application strategies. Both products performed equally using one or two applications at 2-week intervals following harvest., Competing Interests: The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

An increase in Spodoptera species was reported in Bt soybean fields expressing Cry1Ac insecticidal proteins in Brazil, requiring additional management with chemical insecticides. Here, we evaluated the dose effects of flubendiamide and thiodicarb on Spodoptera cosmioides (Walker, 1858), Spodoptera eridania (Stoll, 1782), Spodoptera albula (Walker, 1857) and Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) that survived on MON 87751 × MON 87708 × MON 87701 × MON 89788, expressing Cry1A.105, Cry2Ab2 and Cry1Ac; MON 87701 × MON 89788 soybean, expressing Cry1Ac; and non-Bt soybean. On unsprayed Cry1A.105/Cry2Ab2/Cry1Ac soybean, only S. frugiperda showed ~60% mortality after 10 d, whereas S. cosmioides , S. eridania and S. albula showed >81% mortality. The surviving larvae of all species on this Bt soybean showed >80% mortality when exposed to the field label dose of flubendiamide (70 mL/ha) or thiodicarb (400 g/ha) or at 50% of these doses. In contrast, all four species had <25% and <19% mortality on Cry1Ac and non-Bt soybean, respectively. The surviving S. cosmioides , S. eridania and S. albula on these soybean types presented >83% mortality after exposure to both dose levels of flubendiamide and thiodicarb. Some S. frugiperda larvae surviving on Cry1Ac and non-Bt soybean sprayed with a 50% dose of either insecticide developed into adults. However, the L1 larvae developing on Cry1Ac soybean leaves sprayed with flubendiamide and the L2 larvae on this soybean sprayed with thiodicarb had a prolonged immature stage, and the females displayed lower fecundity, which are likely to impact S. frugiperda population growth on soybean.

Podosphaera leucotricha , causal agent of apple powdery mildew, is a pathogen endemic worldwide where apples are produced. In the absence of durable host resistance, the disease is most effectively managed in conventional orchards with single-site fungicides. In New York State, increasingly erratic precipitation patterns and warmer temperatures due to climate change may create a regional environment more conducive to apple powdery mildew development and spread. In this scenario, outbreaks of apple powdery mildew may supplant the apple diseases of current management concern: apple scab and fire blight. Presently, there have been no reports from producers of fungicide control failures for apple powdery mildew, though increased disease incidence has been reported to and observed by the authors. As such, action was needed to assess the fungicide resistance status of populations of P. leucotricha to ensure key classes of single-site fungicides (FRAC 3, demethylation inhibitors, DMI; FRAC 11, quinone outside inhibitors, QoI; and FRAC 7, succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors, SDHI) remain effective. In a 2-year survey (2021 to 2022), we collected 160 samples of P. leucotricha from 43 orchards, representing conventional, organic, low-input, and unmanaged orchards from New York's primary production regions. Samples were screened for mutations in the target genes ( CYP51 , cytb , and sdhB ) historically known to confer fungicide resistance in other fungal pathogens to the DMI, QoI, and SDHI fungicide classes, respectively. Across all samples, no nucleotide sequence mutations that translated into problematic amino acid substitutions were found in the target genes, suggesting that New York populations of P. leucotricha remain sensitive to the DMI, QoI, and SDHI fungicide classes, provided no other fungicide resistance mechanism is at play in the population., Competing Interests: The author(s) declare no conflict of interest.

Onion ( Allium cepa L.) is an economically important vegetable crop worldwide. However, various fungal diseases, including Fusarium basal rot (FBR), neck rot, and white rot, reduce onion production or bulb storage life. FBR caused by Fusarium species is among the most destructive onion diseases. In this study, we identified Fusarium species associated with FBR in Jeolla and Gyeongsang Provinces in South Korea and evaluated fungicides against the pathogens. Our morphological and molecular analyses showed that FBR in onions is associated with Fusarium commune , Fusarium oxysporum , and Fusarium proliferatum . We selected seven fungicides (fludioxonil, hexaconazole, mandestrobin, penthiopyrad, prochloraz-manganese, pydiflumetofen, and tebuconazole) and evaluated their inhibitory effects on mycelial growth of the pathogens at three different concentrations (0.01, 0.1, and 1 mg/mL). We found that prochloraz-manganese was highly effective, inhibiting 100% of the mycelial growth of the pathogens at all concentrations, followed by tebuconazole. Fludioxonil showed < 50% inhibition at 1 mg/mL for the tested isolates., Competing Interests: No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s)., (© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group on behalf of the Korean Society of Mycology.)

Cinnamomum tamala (bay leaf) is widely used for culinary and medicinal purposes in South Asia. A leaf blight/spot disease was first discovered on nearly 90% of C. tamala plants with a mean severity of 48% to 74.4% in Gazipur and Bogura, Bangladesh, in 2019. The present study identified and characterized the causal organism and formulated the optimum growth conditions and effective fungicides for the chemical control of the pathogen. The characteristic symptoms on the infected leaves appeared circular to oval reddish-brown spots with raised margins and often developed in tear-stain patterns. Severe infection of C. tamala sapling resulted in dieback symptoms with leaf defoliation. A fungus with floccose, dense, white colonies with well-differentiated acervuli was isolated from the infected leaves. Combined cultural, morphological, and molecular characteristics identified the pathogen as Colletotrichum siamense. Inculcating healthy leaves and 1-year-old saplings of C. tamala with a conidial suspension of the fungus reproduced the same symptoms observed in the bay leaf orchard. The highest mycelial growth was recorded on V-8 Juice Agar media, while the maximum radial mycelial growth and level of sporulation of the fungus were significantly higher in incubation temperature 30°C. Fungicide trials showed that carbendazim 50 WP, azoxystrobin, mancozeb, and trifloxystrobin, either singly or in combination, successfully reduced fungal mycelial growth in vitro. Therefore, disease management strategies should be opted to halt the further spread of this issue. To our knowledge, this is the first study to document the incidence of Colletotrichum leaf blight on C. tamala in Bangladesh and even in the world., (© 2023 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Background: Selective insecticides and insecticide-resistant natural enemies are components of chemical and biological methods that can be compatible in an integrated pest management (IPM) program. Many insecticides that are labeled for treatment against insects in Brassica crops have lost their efficacy because of the development of resistance. However, natural enemies can provide an important role in regulating the population of these pests., Results: Survival of Eriopis connexa populations was >80% when exposed to insecticides, except for EcFM exposed to indoxacarb and methomyl. Bacillus thuringiensis, cyantraniliprole, chlorfenapyr and spinosad caused high mortality of P. xylostella larvae, but neither affected E. connexa survival nor its predation upon L. pseudobrassicae. Cyantraniliprole, chlorfenapyr, deltamethrin and methomyl caused high mortality of L. pseudobrassicae, but did not affect E. connexa survival nor its predation upon P. xylostella larvae. According to the differential selectivity index and the risk quotient, chlorfenapyr and methomyl were more toxic to P. xylostella larvae than to E. connexa, whereas indoxacarb was more toxic to E. connexa., Conclusion: This study demonstrates that the insecticides B. thuringiensis, cyantraniliprole, chlorantraniliprole, deltamethrin, chlorfenapyr, spinosad, azadiracthin and spiromesifen are compatible with insecticide-resistant adult E. connexa within an IPM program in Brassica crops. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.)

The use of toxic baits has become one of the main methods of management of fruit flies in Brazil. The application of toxic baits may cause side effects on the native parasitoid Doryctobracon areolatus (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Based on the results, formulations made from the food attractants 3% Biofruit, 1.5% Ceratrap, 1.25% Flyral, 3% Isca Samaritá, 3% Isca Samaritá Tradicional, and 7% sugarcane molasses associated with the Malathion 1000 EC and the ready-to-use toxic bait Gelsura (containing the active ingredient alpha-cypermethrin) were classified as harmful (class 4) to D. areolatus (mortality > 85% at 96 HAE). In contrast, for toxic baits formulated with insecticide phosmet, the mortality ranged from 38% to 72%, classified as slightly harmful or moderately harmful. However, when phosmet was added to the 3% Samaritá Tradicional bait, the mortality was only 3.9% (class 1-harmless), similar to the toxicity observed for the Success 0.02 CB ready-to-use bait (0.24 g a.i. spinosad/l) (<5% mortality). Although toxic baits were formulated with spinosyn-based insecticides, all toxic bait formulations were classified as harmless or slightly harmful (<50% mortality) to D. areolatus, with the exception of 1.5% Ceratrap + spinetoram and 7% Sugarcane molasses + spinosad (≈ 60% mortality-moderately harmful). In addition, these formulations did not show sublethal effects in reducing the parasitism and emergence rate of the F1 generation of D. areolatus in A. fraterculus larvae. The results serve as a basis for the correct use of toxic food baits without affecting the biological control., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

In 2017, the hibiscus bud weevil (HBW), Anthonomus testaceosquamosus Linell (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), was found outside of its native range of Mexico and Texas, infesting hibiscus plants in Florida. Therefore, we selected 21 different insecticide and horticultural oil products to evaluate their effects on the reproductive rate, feeding, and oviposition behavior of the HBW. In laboratory experiments, significant mortality was observed in adult weevils exposed to diflubenzuron-treated hibiscus leaves and buds, and hibiscus buds treated with diflubenzuron contained the fewest number of eggs and feeding/oviposition holes. Among horticultural oil products, significant mortality was only observed in experiments in which adult weevils were directly sprayed (direct experiments). Pyrethrins and spinetoram plus sulfoxaflor reduced the oviposition rate and caused significant mortality in direct experiments. Diflubenzuron, pyrethrins, spinetoram plus sulfoxaflor, and spirotetramat were further tested via contact toxicity experiments and greenhouse experiments. Contact toxicity experiments demonstrated that the tested insecticides (except diflubenzuron) were highly toxic to HBW adults. In greenhouse experiments, only those hibiscus plants treated with pyrethrins had significantly fewer feeding/oviposition holes and larvae within their flower buds when compared to control (water-treated) plants. These results constitute an important first step in the identification of effective chemical control options for the HBW.