Search

Dried yellow chili is highly appreciated by consumers due to its excellent quality and flavor. The quality of products is determined by the drying and storage methods. In this study, dried yellow chilis were processed by natural air drying and hot air drying methods and then stored under three conditions: ambient temperature, ambient temperature with light avoidance, and at 10 °C with light avoidance for 12 months. The changes in the bioactive compounds during this period were analyzed attempting to reveal correlations between the different treatments and these compounds, with the aim of providing references for maintaining the bioactive compounds of pepper products. The results showed that samples treated with hot air had higher levels of fatty acids, resulting in a more pronounced flavor. During storage, samples stored at 10 °C with light avoidance were more effective in preserving soluble solids, total protein content, total phenols, capsaicinoids and most fatty acids., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Pungent capsaicinoid is synthesized only in chili pepper (Capsicum spp.). The production of vanillylamine from vanillin is a unique reaction in the capsaicinoid biosynthesis pathway. Although putative aminotransferase (pAMT) has been isolated as the vanillylamine synthase gene, it is unclear how Capsicum acquired pAMT. Here, we present a phylogenetic overview of pAMT and its homologs. The Capsicum genome contained 5 homologs, including pAMT, CaGABA-T1, CaGABA-T3, and two pseudogenes. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that pAMT is a member of the Solanaceae cytoplasmic GABA-Ts. Comparative genome analysis found that multiple copies of GABA-T exist in a specific Solanaceae genomic region, and the cytoplasmic GABA-Ts other than pAMT are located in the region. The cytoplasmic GABA-T was phylogenetically close to pseudo-GABA-T harboring a plastid transit peptide (pseudo-GABA-T3). This suggested that Solanaceae cytoplasmic GABA-Ts occurred via duplication of a chloroplastic GABA-T ancestor and subsequent loss of the plastid transit signal. The cytoplasmic GABA-T may have been translocated from the specific Solanaceae genomic region during Capsicum divergence, resulting in the current pAMT locus. A recombinant protein assay demonstrated that pAMT had higher vanillylamine synthase activity than those of other plant GABA-Ts. pAMT was expressed exclusively in the placental septum of mature green fruit, whereas tomato orthologs SlGABA-T2/4 exhibit a ubiquitous expression pattern in plants. These findings suggested that both the increased catalytic efficiency and transcriptional changes in pAMT may have contributed to establish vanillylamine synthesis in the capsaicinoid biosynthesis pathway. This study provides insights into the establishment of pungency in the evolution of chili peppers., (© 2023 Society for Experimental Biology and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Red chili pepper ( Capsicum annuum L. ), which belongs to the Solanaceae family, contains a variety of phytochemicals with health-promoting properties including capsaicinoids, phenolics and fatty acids. Red chili pepper is one of the most consumed vegetables in Korea and occupies the largest cultivated area among spices. In this study, the ethanolic extracts from two Korean local cultivars, namely Subicho and Eumseong, were analyzed using a hybrid trapped ion mobility Q-TOF mass spectrometer equipped with a UPLC system, and their phytochemical profiles were then compared with those of a common phytophthora disease-resistant cultivar called Dokbulwang, which is extensively used for red chili pepper powder in public spaces across Korea. Utilizing high-resolution ion-mobility Q-TOF MS analysis, 458 and 192 compounds were identified from the three different red chili peppers in positive and negative ion modes, respectively, by matching with a reference spectral library. Principal component analysis revealed clear distinctions among the three cultivars, allowing us to identify key phytochemical components responsible for discriminating the local cultivars from the public cultivar. Furthermore, the assessment of total flavonoid, phenolic, and antioxidant activity in the red pepper extracts, highlighted their diverse molecular and chemical profiles. Despite the higher total flavonoid and phenolic content values observed in the public cultivar, the radical scavenging rate was higher in the local cultivars, particularly in Subicho. This suggest the presence of stronger antioxidant compounds in the local cultivar, indicating their potential health benefits due to their rich content of bioactive compounds. Notably, the local cultivars exhibited significantly higher proportions of organic compounds (more than four times) and terpenoids (more than two times) compared to the public cultivar. Specifically, higher levels of five major capsaicinoid compounds were found in the local cultivars when compared to the public cultivar. The observed disparities in phytochemical composition and antioxidant activities indicate the molecular diversity present among these cultivars. Further exploration of the bioactive compounds in these local cultivars could prove invaluable for the development of native crops, potentially leading to the discovery of novel sources of bioactive molecules for various applications in health and agriculture., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Jang, Choi and Jang.)

The biosynthesis pathway of capsaicinoids includes the conversion of vanillin to vanillylamine, where putative aminotransferase (pAMT) is thought to be the enzyme responsible in Capsicum plants. The objectives of this study were to prove that pAMT is the enzyme responsible for this conversion in plants and to clarify its catalytic properties using biochemical methods. Both an extract of habanero placenta and recombinant pAMT (rpAMT) constructed by using an Escherichia coli expression system were able to convert vanillin to vanillylamine in the presence of γ-aminobutyric acid as an amino donor and pyridoxal phosphate as a coenzyme. Conversion from vanillin to vanillylamine by the placenta extract was significantly attenuated by adding an anti-pAMT antibody to the reaction system. The amino donor specificity and affinity for vanillin of rpAMT were similar to those of the placenta extract. We thus confirmed that pAMT is the enzyme responsible for the conversion of vanillin to vanillylamine in capsaicinoid synthesis in Capsicum fruits. Therefore, we propose that pAMT should henceforth be named vanillin aminotransferase (VAMT).

Capsaicinoids are mostly derived from chili peppers and have widespread applications in food, feed, and pharmacology. Compared with plant extraction, the use of microbial cell factories for capsaicinoids production is considered as a more efficient approach. Here, the biotransformation of renewable plant oil and vanillylamine into capsaicinoid nonivamide was investigated. Nonivamide biosynthesis using nonanoic acid and vanillylamine as substrates was achieved in Escherichia coli by heterologous expression of genes encoding amide-forming N-acyltransferase and CoA-ligase. Through increasing nonanoic acid tolerance of chassis cell, screening key enzymes involved in nonivamide biosynthesis and optimizing biotransformation conditions, the nonivamide titer reached 0.5 g/L. By further integrating a route for conversion of oleic acid to nonanoic acid, nonivamide biosynthesis was finally achieved using olive oil and vanillylamine as substrates, yielding a titer of approximately 10.7 mg/L. Results from this study provide valuable information for constructing highly efficient cell factories for the production of capsaicinoid compounds., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Key Message: The transcript level of alcohol acyltransferase 1 (AAT1) may be the main factor influencing the variations in volatile esters that characterizing the fruity/exotic aroma of pepper fruit. Volatile esters are key components for characterizing the fruity/exotic aroma of pepper (Capsicum spp.) fruit. In general, the volatile ester content in the fruit is the consequence of a delicate balance between their synthesis by alcohol acyltransferases (AATs) and degradation by carboxylesterases (CXEs). However, the precise role of these families of enzymes with regard to volatile ester content remains unexplored in Capsicum. In this study, we found that the volatile ester content was relatively low in C. annuum and much higher in C. chinense, particularly in pungent varieties. Additionally, fruits collected from multiple non-pungent C. chinense varieties, which harbor loss-of-function mutations in capsaicinoid biosynthetic genes, acyltransferase (Pun1), putative aminotransferase (pAMT), or putative ketoacyl-ACP reductase (CaKR1) were analyzed. The volatile ester contents of non-pungent C. chinense varieties (pamt/pamt) were equivalent to those of pungent varieties, but their levels were significantly lower in non-pungent NMCA30036 (pun1 2 /pun1 2 ) and C. chinense (Cakr1/Cakr1) varieties. Multiple AAT-like sequences were identified from the pepper genome sequences, whereas only one CXE-like sequence was identified. Among these, AAT1, AAT2, and CXE1 were isolated from fruits of C. chinense and C. annuum. Gene expression analysis revealed that the AAT1 transcript level is a potential determinant of fruit volatile ester variations in Capsicum. Furthermore, enzymatic assays demonstrated that AAT1 is responsible for the biosynthesis of volatile esters in pepper fruit. Identification of a key gene for aroma biosynthesis in pepper fruit will provide a theoretical basis for the development of molecular tools for flavor improvement., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Background: Carotenoids are natural hydrocarbons that play an important role in photomorphogenesis, photosynthesis, photoprotection, development, and defense mechanism of plants. Carotenoids have good anti-oxidants and provitamin A contents with their additional colorant nature, which are indispensable to plants and human diets. Capsicum species are well known for their culinary uses worldwide; they are not only cultivated as vegetables but used in numerous medicinal preparations as well due to their medicinal aspects. This article aims to collect data on the beneficial aspects of capsaicinoids with a major emphasis on capsanthin., Methods: In order to instigate the biological potential and therapeutic benefit of capsanthin in medicine, in the present work, scientific research data on capsanthin were collected from different literature sources and analyzed. The biological potential of Capsicum annuum in medicine was also investigated through literature data analysis of different scientific research work. Scientific data on capsanthin were collected from Google, Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, and Scopus using the term capsanthin and capsicum in the present work. Detailed pharmacological activities of capsanthin were presented and discussed in the present work through scientific data analysis of research work. Analytical techniques for the separation, isolation, and identification of capsanthin were taken into consideration in this work., Results: Scientific data analysis revealed the biological importance and therapeutic benefit of capsanthin and capsicum in medicine. Capsicum annuum is a member of the Solanaceae family, which is one of the most cultivated spices worldwide. Capsaicinoids are one of the main classes of phytochemicals found in chili peppers, i.e., Capsicum annuum, and are mainly responsible for the pungent and spicy flavor of chili peppers. Capsanthin is a crystalline red color pigment found as the main component of Capsicum annuum fruits during ripening. Capsanthin is also found in Lilium, Aesculus, Berberis, and Asparagus officinalis. Chemically, capsanthin contains a cyclopentane ring, 11 conjugated double bonds, and a conjugated keto group. Capsanthin is a powerful antioxidant, exhibits anti-tumor activities, attenuates obesity-induced inflammation, and raises plasma HDL cholesterol levels. Scientific studies have proven the pharmacological benefits of capsanthin in medicine as it is helpful in pain relief, cardioprotection, weight loss, and body temperature regulation. Moreover, it also has anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. In the literature database, numerous extraction and isolation techniques have been documented for capsanthin. In addition, the analytical techniques and other bioanalytical tools for the isolation and identification of capsanthin were also discussed in the present article., Conclusion: Medicinal importance and pharmacological activities of capsanthin were reviewed and discussed in this paper. This review aimed to highlight the literature on capsanthin in drug discoveries with their analytical development., (Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub@benthamscience.net.)

Immunochromatographic methods are acknowledged analytic assay to analyze capsaicinoids. Immunomagnetic solid-phase extraction (IMSPE) coupled with time-resolved fluorescence immunochromatographic assay (TRFICA) was proposed to quantify capsaicinoids in oil samples. Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) were synthesized with CNBr-Magnetic Crystarose 4B particles (CNBr-MCPs) under mild condition. The resultant CNBr-MCPs@mAb were conjugated high affinity mAbs on its surface, which was utilized to extract capsaicinoids from lipid matrices via antibodies-antigens capture. Under the optimized conditions, the whole IMSPE procedure was achieved within 15 min, and quantified by TRFICA strips. The results showed coefficients up to 0.9975 and the visual detection limit as low as 0.6 µg kg -1 . The recoveries were ranging from 88.3 % to 112.4 % with the intra-day and inter-day precision lower than 11.6 %. Finally, the proposed IMSPE-TRFICA method was successfully used to detect capsaicinoids in lipid matrices, which has great utility to quantify capsaicinoids and adulteration detect vegetable oils., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In this study, the effect of emulsifier type, i.e. whey protein versus Tween 80, on the digestion behaviour of emulsion gels containing capsaicinoids (CAPs) was examined. The results indicate that the CAP-loaded Tween 80 emulsion gel was emptied out significantly faster during gastric digestion than the CAP-loaded whey protein emulsion gel. The Tween-80-coated oil droplets appeared to be in a flocculated state in the emulsion gel, had no interactions with the protein matrix and were easily released from the protein matrix during gastric digestion. The whey-protein-coated oil droplets showed strong interactions with the protein matrix, and the presence of thick protein layer around the oil droplets protected their liberation during gastric digestion. During intestinal digestion, the CAP-loaded Tween 80 emulsion gel had a lower extent of lipolysis than the CAP-loaded whey protein emulsion gel, probably because the interfacial layer formed by Tween 80 was resistance to displacement by bile salts, and/or because Tween 80 formed interfacial complexes with bile salts/lipolytic enzymes. Because of the softer structure of the CAP-loaded Tween 80 emulsion gel, the gel particles were broken down much faster and the oil droplets were liberated from the protein matrix more readily than for the CAP-loaded whey protein emulsion gel during intestinal digestion; this promoted the release of CAP molecules from the gel. In addition, the Tween 80 molecules displaced from the interface would participate in the formation of mixed micelles and would help to solubilize the released CAP molecules, leading to improved bioaccessibility of CAP. Information obtained from this study could be useful in designing functional foods for the delivery of lipophilic bioactive compounds., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2023 The Authors.)

The 12-oxophytoeienoic acid reductase (OPR) is a kind of enzyme in the octadecanoid biosynthesis pathway that determines the biosynthesis of jasmonic acid. Although the roles of OPRs have been extensively studied in several crop plants, little is known about the biological functions of OPR-encoding genes in Capsicum annuum plants. In this study, seven OPR family genes ( CaOPR1-7 ) were identified from the C. annuum genome. The physical and chemical properties of CaOPR1-7 were further analyzed, including gene expression patterns, promoter elements, and chromosomal locations. The results showed that the seven CaOPR homologues could be divided into two subgroups, and CaOPR6 was highly similar to AtOPR3 in Arabidopsis . The expression of CaOPR6 was significantly induced by various stresses such as cold, salt, and pathogen infection, indicating that CaOPR6 plays important roles in response to abiotic and biotic stresses. Overall, these findings improve the understanding of the biological functions of CaOPR6 in the development of pepper fruit and stress response of pepper plants, and facilitate further studies on the molecular biology of OPR proteins in Solanaceae vegetables.

Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin (DHC) are major pungent capsaicinoids produced in chili peppers. Capsaicin has been previously shown to promote vascular health by increasing nitric oxide (NO) production and reducing inflammatory responses. While capsaicin has been extensively studied, whether DHC exerts cardiovascular benefits through similar mechanisms remains unclear. The current study aimed to investigate the direct effects of DHC on endothelial inflammation, NO release, and free radical scavenging properties. DHC at concentrations up to 50 µM did not affect cell viability, while concentrations of 100 and 500 µM of DHC led to endothelial cytotoxicity. Capsaicin decreased cell viability at concentration of 500 µM. To investigate the effects of capsaicinoids on endothelial activation, we first demonstrated that TNFα induced Ser536 phosphorylation of p65 NFκB, expressions of adhesion molecules, vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 and intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, and IL-6 production in primary human endothelial cells. These effects were robustly abrogated by DHC. Consistently, DHC treatment led to a marked reduction in TNFα-mediated monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells. Additionally, NO production was significantly induced by DHC and capsaicin compared to vehicle control. Similar to capsaicin and vitamin C, DHC scavenged DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) free radicals in vitro. Our present study highlights the benefits of DHC and capsaicin treatment on human endothelial cells and provides evidence to support cardiovascular benefits from capsicum consumption., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest statement The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS.. All rights reserved.)

Beef tallow (BT) is the common hotpot oil used in Sichuan hotpot, increasing its characteristic flavors and making it taste better. However, the cholesterol content in BT is high, which may induce cardiovascular diseases. In this study, the effect of palm stearin (PS) on Sichuan hotpot oil was evaluated. The PS: BT blends showed similar physicochemical properties to BT from the results of sensory evaluation, pulsed NMR, DSC, and polar light micrograph (PLM). Furthermore, since spiciness is the essential characteristic of Sichuan hotpot, the digestive properties of capsaicinoids in hotpot oil were used as an evaluation index. The results showed that the digestive properties of capsaicinoids in hotpot oil containing PS were consistent with those without PS. In conclusion, PS can be partially used to replace BT, which can broaden the types of oil used for hotpot and help develop a new hotpot oil., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Key Message: CAP biosynthesis in the pericarp of chili pepper fruits occurs with an ambiguous boundary in the placental septum and pericarp. Capsaicinoid (CAP) is a pungent ingredient of chili pepper fruits. Generally, CAP biosynthesis is limited to the placental septum of fruits, but it has been reported that its biosynthesis occurs even in the pericarp of some extremely pungent varieties, resulting in a substantial increase in total content. To examine the mechanism of CAP biosynthesis in the pericarp, comparative transcriptome analysis of a variety that produces CAP in the pericarp (MY) and a variety that does not (HB) was carried out. RNA-seq revealed that 2264 genes were differentially expressed in the MY pericarp compared with the HB pericarp. PCA analysis and GO enrichment analysis indicated that the MY pericarp has a gene expression profile more like placental septum than the HB pericarp. The gene expression of CAP biosynthesis-related genes in the MY pericarp changed coordinately with the placental septum during fruit development. In most Capsicum accessions including HB, the distribution of slender epidermal cells producing CAP was limited to the placental septum, and the morphological boundary between the placental septum and pericarp was clear. In some extremely pungent varieties such as MY, slender epidermal cells ranged from the placental septum to the pericarp region, and the pericarp was morphologically similar to the placental septum, such as the absence of large sub-epidermal cells and abundant spaces in the parenchymal tissue. Our data suggest that CAP biosynthesis in the pericarp occurred with an ambiguous boundary in the placental septum and pericarp. These findings contribute to further enhancement of CAP production in chili pepper fruits., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

This study investigated the effect of gel structure on the digestion of heat-set whey protein emulsion gels containing capsaicinoids (CAP), including the bioaccessibility of CAP. Upon heat treatment at 90 °C, whey protein emulsion gels containing CAP (10 wt% whey protein isolate, 20 wt% soybean oil, 0.02 wt% CAP) with different structures and gel mechanical strengths were formed by varying ionic strength. The hard gel (i.e., oil droplet size d 4,3 ~ 0.5 μm, 200 mM NaCl), with compact particulate gel structure, led to slower disintegration of the gel particles and slower hydrolysis of the whey proteins during gastric digestion compared with the soft gel (i.e., d 4,3 ~ 0.5 μm, 10 mM NaCl). The oil droplets started to coalesce after 60 min of gastric digestion in the soft gel, whereas minor oil droplet coalescence was observed for the hard gel at the end of the gastric digestion. In general, during intestinal digestion, the gastric digesta from the hard gel was disintegrated more slowly than that from the soft gel. A power-law fit between the bioaccessibility of CAP (Y) and the extent of lipid digestion (X) was established: Y = 49.2 × (X - 305.3) 0.104 , with R 2 = 0.84. A greater extent of lipid digestion would lead to greater release of CAP from the food matrix; also, more lipolytic products would be produced and would participate in micelle formation, which would help to solubilize the released CAP and therefore result in their higher bioaccessibility.

Capsaicinoid content, among other factors, affects the perception of spiciness of commercial kimchi. Here, we investigated whether the physicochemical properties of kimchi affect the spicy taste of capsaicinoids perceived by the tasting. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to evaluate the capsaicinoid content (mg/kg) of thirteen types of commercial kimchi. The physicochemical properties such as pH, titratable acidity, salinity, free sugar content, and free amino acid content were evaluated, and the spicy strength grade was determined by selected panel to analyze the correlation between these properties. Panels were trained for 48 h prior to actual evaluation by panel leaders trained for over 1000 h according to the Spectrum TM method. Partial correlation analysis was performed to examine other candidate parameters that interfere with the sensory evaluation of spiciness and capsaicinoid content. To express the specific variance after eliminating the effects of other variables, partial correlations were used to estimate the relationships between two variables. We observed a strong correlation between spiciness intensity ratings and capsaicinoid content, with a Pearson's correlation coefficient of 0.78 at p ≤ 0.001. However, other specific variables may have influenced the relationship between spiciness intensity and total capsaicinoid content. Partial correlation analysis indicated that the free sugar content most strongly affected the relationship between spiciness intensity and capsaicinoid content, showing the largest first-order partial correlation coefficient (r xy/z : 0.091, p ≤ 0.01).

Introduction: Proton ( 1 H) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy based analytical method for the quantification of capsaicin (major pungent principle of chili) has certain advantages including short data acquisition time and better structural authentication. Earlier NMR methods are associated with either of the bottlenecks such as low or lack of information on the sensitivity and scope for the quantification of total capsaicinoid., Objective: To develop a sensitive 1 H quantitative NMR (qNMR) technique for capsaicin and total capsaicinoid in dry chili and chili oleoresin and to demonstrate its applicability in a real sample set., Method: A 1 H qNMR method was developed using benzene as the internal standard for the quantification of capsaicin (terminal methyl signal) as well as total capsaicinoid (benzyl methylene signal) in dry chili and oleoresin and validated in terms of specificity, linearity, sensitivity, accuracy and precision., Results: The developed 1 H qNMR method was specific, sensitive (limit of detection 4.4 μg/mL and limit of quantitation 14.8 μg/mL), linear in the range 0.083-8.33 mg/mL of capsaicin, accurate and precise. The credibility of the developed method was showcased in the morpho-chemical characterisation of commercially available 15 chili land races from northeast India. The analysis identified the land races with a wide range of capsaicin (trace to 1.49% in the dry fruit and trace to 6.21% in the oleoresin w/w) and oleoresin content (3.35-26.78% w/w)., Conclusion: The standardized 1 H qNMR method facilitated the findings of chemical basis for the selection of chili land races from this region, capable of producing high-yielding oleoresin with intended degree of pungency., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Capsaicinoids, including capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin and N-vanillylnonanamide have been identified as characteristic markers for gutter oil. In this study, the nanocomposite of graphene oxide-Fe 3 O 4 (GO-Fe 3 O 4 ) was synthesized by a co-precipitation method, and applied to magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) process. The capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin and N-vanillylnonanamide extracted in gutter oil were analyzed by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Under the optimized pretreatment conditions, the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) are 0.15 and 0.4 µg L -1 , respectively. The linear range is 0.4-200 µg L -1 , and the correlation coefficients (R 2 ) are over 0.996 for all three compounds. The recoveries range from 81.2% to 103.3% for soybean oil and 71.2% to 84.3% for rapeseed oil. The values of matrix effect range in 87.6%-105.5% and 83.4%-110.6% and the intra-day RSDs range from 2.8%-4.6% to 4.8%-6.1% for soybean oil and rapeseed oil, respectively. The adsorbent can be reused for multiple times with no appreciable loss of adsorption capability. The present methodology has high potential for screening of gutter oil in food samples, thus having importance for food safety monitoring., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Chili peppers ( Capsicum annuum L.) are widely consumed worldwide, and the health benefits of capsaicinoids (the active compounds in chili peppers) have been suggested. However, the link between capsaicinoid consumption and the risk of certain cancers remains controversial. Capsaicinoid consumption level is an important determinant of its potential health effects. This study sought to construct a database of capsaicinoid contents in foods commonly consumed in Korea (CAPKO) to enable a more reliable estimation of capsaicinoid intake. Capsaicinoid-containing foods were identified from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey datasets and divided into eight categories: chili peppers, red pepper powder, hot sauce, kimchi, salted seafood, red pepper paste, instant noodles, and convenience foods other than instant noodles. The capsaicinoid contents of primary capsaicinoid sources (chili peppers, red pepper powder, and hot sauce) were estimated from the literature. For the remaining food categories, the contents of primary capsaicinoid sources were identified from standardized recipes (kimchi) or food labels (salted seafood, red pepper paste, and convenience foods other than instant noodles). Then, capsaicinoid contents were estimated by calculation using the identified capsaicinoid source contents and the estimated capsaicinoid content in these sources. This information was unavailable for instant noodles, and capsaicinoid content was measured by HPLC analyses. This study developed the CAPKO database, which includes a variety of foods with varying levels of spiciness, which can be used in combination with dietary surveys to estimate capsaicinoid intakes. Therefore, this study established a framework for future database development for other compounds with potential health effects., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (© 2020 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Capsaicinoids are unique compounds that give chili pepper fruits their pungent taste. Capsaicinoid levels vary widely among pungent cultivars, which range from low pungency to extremely pungent. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this quantitative variation have not been elucidated. Our previous study identified various loss-of-function alleles of the pAMT gene which led to low pungency. The mutations in these alleles are commonly defined by Tcc transposon insertion and its footprint. In this study, we identified two leaky pamt alleles (pamt L1 and pamt L2 ) with different levels of putative aminotransferase (pAMT) activity. Notably, both alleles had a Tcc transposon insertion in intron 3, but the locations of the insertions within the intron were different. Genetic analysis revealed that pamt L1 , pamt L2 and a loss-of-function pamt allele reduced capsaicinoid levels to about 50%, 10% and less than 1%, respectively. pamt L1 and pamt L2 encoded functional pAMT proteins, but they exhibited lower transcript levels than the functional type. RNA sequencing analysis showed that intronic transposons disrupted splicing in intron 3, which resulted in simultaneous expression of functional pAMT mRNA and non-functional splice variants containing partial sequences of Tcc. The non-functional splice variants were more dominant in pamt L2 than in pamt L1 . This suggested that the difference in position of the intronic transposons could alter splicing efficiency, leading to different pAMT activities and reducing capsaicinoid content to different levels. Our results provide a striking example of allelic variations caused by intronic transposons; these variations contribute to quantitative differences in secondary metabolite contents., (© 2019 The Authors The Plant Journal © 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Jasmonates (JAs) play an important role in plant developmental processes and regulate the biosynthesis of various specialized metabolites, and transcription factors are crucial in mediating JA signaling to regulate these processes. Capsaicinoids (Caps) are intriguing specialized metabolites produced uniquely by Capsicum species that give their fruits a pungent flavor to defend against herbivory and pathogens. In this study, we identify a R2R3-MYB transcription factor CaMYB108 and demonstrate its roles in regulating the biosynthesis of Caps and stamen development. Transcriptional analysis indicated that CaMYB108 was preferentially expressed in the flower and fruit, while the subcellular localization of CaMYB108 was shown to be the nucleus. Virus-induced gene silencing of CaMYB108 led to the expression of capsaicinoid biosynthetic genes (CBGs), and the contents of Caps dramatically reduce. Moreover, the CaMYB108 -silenced plants showed delayed anther dehiscence and reduced pollen viability. Transient overexpression of CaMYB108 caused the expression of CBGs to be upregulated, and the Caps content significantly increased. The results of dual-luciferase reporter assays showed that CaMYB108 targeted CBG promoters. In addition, the expression of CaMYB108 and CBGs was inducible by methyl jasmonate and was consistent with the increased content of Caps. Overall, our results indicate that CaMYB108 is involved in the regulation of Caps biosynthesis and stamen development.

Capsicum has been proved to have anti-obesity effect. In this study, extracts from multi-strain coupled fermented capsicum (EFC) and from fresh capsicum (EC) were compared in their anti-obesity effect among these obese mice induced by high-fat diet (HFD), in order to exploring the potential mechanism of EFC for alleviating obesity. It has shown that the constituents of capsicum undergo transformation during fermentation. Obese mice in all experimental groups had similar energy absorption, and both EFC and EC relieved obesity, with better effect in the EFC group than in the EC group. Lower lipid and cholesterol were observed in serum, liver and feces in HFD-FC (HFD supplied with EFC)group compared to HFD-C (HFD supplied with EC) group. In addition, the HFD-FC group had less visceral fat and a smaller adipocyte size. The HFD-FC group exhibited better sensitivity to hormones, with lower levels of both leptin and insulin and higher ghrelin level. Expression of PPARα, CPT-1α, HSL and ACO were up-regulated, whereas PPARγ and C/EBPα were down-regulated significantly in the HFD-FC group compared to the HFD-C group. In summary, fermentation of Capsicum leads to a better effect on preventing fat accumulation and reducing lipid levels, which may be regulated by certain new contents in EFC that facilitate lipid metabolism and hormone response., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

The present study was designed to evaluate the contents of different antioxidants compounds and their antioxidant activities in Jalopeno peppers (Capsicum annuum) cultivars (El Dorido, Grande, Tula, Sayula and El Rey) extracts. Free radical scavenging activity of Grande was recorded as high as 87% followed by El Dorido (83%). Results of reducing power (Fe 3+ to Fe 2+ ) showed that Grande (0.85%) and El Dorido (0.81%) fruit extract absorbance value were close to synthetic antioxidant BHT (0. 97%) obtained at100 μg/mL. The results showed that total phenolic content of El Dorido and Grande were significantly higher compared to other Jalapeno pepper. Results indicated strong and positive correlation between antioxidant activity and carotenoids content (r = 0.75), vitamin C (r = 0.78) and total capsaicinoids (r = 0.84), respectively. The results of the antioxidant activity assays showed that the El Dorido and Grande had strongest antioxidant activity compared to other peppers cultivars in this study.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of sanshoamides and capsaiciniods on plasma and liver lipid levels and the mRNA expression levels of key receptors involved in cholesterol metabolism in hyperlipidemic rats. A total of 56 three-week-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to 7 treatment groups based on initial body weight ( n  = 8 rats per group). With certain combinations of sanshoamides and capsaicinoids significantly increased food intake, reduced lipid levels in blood and liver, improved histological characteristics of a fatty liver, down regulated mRNA expression levels of cholesterol 7-alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutary CoA (HMG-CoA) and Farnesoid X Receptor (FXR) in liver and apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter, Ileal Bile Acid Binding Protein and FXR in the ileum in hyperlipidemic rats. These results indicated that dietary supplementation with sanshoamides and capsaicinoids reduced blood lipid levels and improved cholesterol metabolism in hyperlipidemic rats., Competing Interests: Compliance with ethical standardsThe authors declare no conflict of interest.

Consumption of capsaicin or its nonpungent analogues, capsinoids has been reported to affect energy expenditure and fat oxidation, although available data are still controversial. The aim of the present study was to conduct a meta-analysis regarding the effects of these substances on energy expenditure and respiratory quotient, with special emphasis on the role of body mass index (BMI) of the participants. Medical databases were systematically searched for papers. Of the 627 trials identified, 9 provided results suitable to be included in analysis. Data analysis showed that after ingestion of capsaicin or capsinoids the energy expenditure increased (245 kJ/day, 58.56 kcal/day, p = 0.030) and the respiratory quotient decreased (by 0.216; p = 0.031) indicating a rise in fat oxidation. Studies with mean BMI of the participants below 25 kg/m 2 failed to report any effect of capsaicin or capsinoids on the energy expenditure (p = 0.718) or on the respiratory quotient (p = 0.444), but studies with mean BMI exceeding 25 kg/m 2 demonstrated an increase in energy expenditure (292 kJ/day, 69.79 kcal/day, p = 0.023) and a marked decrease in respiratory quotient (-0.257, p = 0.036). Our data clearly suggest that capsaicin or capsiate could be a new therapeutic approach in obesity promoting a negative energy balance and increased fat oxidation.

A new type of manganese diselenide nanoparticles (MnSeNPs) was synthesized by using a hydrothermal method. Their surface morphology, crystallinity and elemental distribution were characterized by using transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy which scrutinize the formation of the NPs. The NPs were coated on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry were applied to study the electroanalytical properties towards the oxidation of the food additive capsaicin. The modified GCE displays lower charge transfer resistance (R ct  = 29.52 Ω), a larger active surface area (0.089 cm 2 /g, and more efficient electrochemical oxidation of capsaicin compared to a MnS 2 /GCE and a bare GCE. The oxidation peak potential is 0.43 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) which is lower than that of previously reported GCEs. The sensor has a detection limit as low as 0.05 μM and an electrochemical sensitivity of 2.41 μA μM -1  cm -2 . The method was applied to the determination of capsaicin in pepper samples. Graphical abstract Electrochemical determination of capsaicin in pepper extract by using MnSeNPs modified electrode.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of capsaicinoids (CAPs) on lipid metabolism, inflammation, antioxidant status and the changes in gene products involved in these metabolic functions in exercised rats. A total of 28 male Wistar albino rats were randomly divided into four groups (n = 7) (i) No exercise and no CAPs, (ii) No exercise + CAPs (iii) Regular exercise, (iv) Regular exercise + CAPs. Rats were administered as 0.2 mg capsaicinoids from 10 mg/kg BW/day Capsimax ® daily for 8 weeks. A significant decrease in lactate and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and increase in activities of antioxidant enzymes were observed in the combination of regular exercise and CAPs group ( P < 0.0001). Regular exercise + CAPs treated rats had greater nuclear factor-E2-related factor-2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) levels in muscle than regular exercise and no exercise rats ( P < 0.001). Nevertheless, regular exercise + CAPs treated had lower nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and IL-10 levels in muscle than regular exercise and control rats ( P < 0.001). Muscle sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c), liver X receptors (LXR), ATP citrate lyase (ACLY) and fatty acid synthase (FAS) levels in the regular exercise + CAPs group were lower than all groups ( P < 0.05). However, muscle PPAR-γ level was higher in the regular exercise and CAPs alone than the no exercise rats. These results suggest CAPs with regular exercise may enhance lipid metabolism by regulation of gene products involved in lipid and antioxidant metabolism including SREBP-1c, PPAR-γ, and Nrf2 pathways in rats.

Key Message: This research reveals that the up-regulated expression of multiple capsaicinoid biosynthetic genes in pericarp tissue leads to the elevation of total capsaicinoid content in chili pepper fruit. Capsaicinoids are health-functional compounds that are produced uniquely in chili pepper fruits. A high capsaicinoid level is one of the major parameters determining the commercial quality and health-promoting properties of chili peppers. To investigate the mechanisms responsible for its high contents, we compared an extremely pungent cultivar 'Trinidad Moruga Scorpion Yellow' (MY) with other cultivars of different pungency levels (Fushimi-amanaga, Takanotsume, Red Habanero). Capsaicinoid concentrations were markedly higher in MY fruit (23.9 mg/g DW) than in other pungent cultivars including 'Red Habanero' (HB) fruit (14.3 mg/g DW). Comparative analysis of MY and HB reveals that both cultivars accumulated similar capsaicinoid concentrations in the placental septum, with that in the HB pericarp (1.8 mg/g DW) being markedly lower than that in the placental septum (69.1 mg/g DW). The capsaicinoid concentration in HB fruit is dependent on the placental septum, as reported in other accessions. Therefore, even though placental septum tissue contains high capsaicinoid concentrations, those in the pericarp and seeds attenuated its total content. In contrast, the MY pericarp exhibited a markedly higher concentration (23.2 mg/g DW). A qRT-PCR analysis revealed that multiple capsaicinoid biosynthetic pathway genes (Pun1, pAMT, KAS, and BCAT) were strongly up-regulated in placental septum of pungent cultivars. The genes were expressed exclusively in the MY pericarp, but were barely detected in the pericarps of other pungent cultivars. Collectively, the present study indicates that the up-regulated expression of these genes not only in placental septum but also in pericarp plays an important role in driving capsaicinoid accumulation in the whole fruit.

Background: Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) has become a powerful tool for post-genomic technology in plant species. This is important, especially in select plants, such as the pepper plant, that are recalcitrant to Agrobacterium -mediated transformation. Although VIGS in plants has been widely employed as a powerful tool for functional genomics, scattering phenotypic effects by uneven gene silencing has been implemented in order to overcome challenges in experiments with fruit tissues., Results: We improved the VIGS system based on the tobacco rattle virus (TRV) containing the An2 MYB transcription factor, which is the genetic determinant of purple colored- or anthocyanin-rich pepper. Silencing of endogenous An2 in the anthocyanin-rich pepper with the modified TRV vector for ligation-independent cloning (LIC) lacked purple pigment in its leaves, flowers, and fruits. Infection with TRV-LIC containing a tandem construct of An2 and phytoene desaturase ( PDS ) resulted in a typical photobleaching event in leaves without the purple pigment, whereas silencing of PDS led to the presence of photobleached and purple-colored leaves. Cosilencing of endogenous An2 and capsaicin synthase in fruits resulted in decreased levels of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin as assessed by high performance liquid chromatography analysis coupled with the absence of the purple pigment in fruits., Conclusions: VIGS with tandem constructs harboring An2 as a visible reporter in anthocyanin-rich pepper plants can facilitate the application of functional genomics in the study of metabolic pathways and fruit biology.

The variability of capsaicinoid content of three common, commercially-available hot pepper varieties, namely Jalapeño, Habanero and Bhut Jolokia, was investigated. For each variety tested, ten peppers were acquired from each of ten different suppliers resulting in 100 peppers per variety that were individually analyzed. The results showed that different pepper varieties had different distribution types. The Habanero peppers showed a normal distribution; the Bhut Jolokia showed a skewed distribution and the Jalapeño peppers showed a very skewed distribution. The source of variability was also different; the Habaneros were very consistent within a given pepper supplier so most of the overall variation resulted from differences between suppliers. The Jalapeño peppers were the exact opposite with a very high degree of variability within a given supplier and relatively low variation between suppliers. A bootstrap statistical simulation was conducted on the data to suggest a minimum number of peppers to analyze to characterize the variation in a population. The simulations indicated that small sample sizes are effective at estimating the mean concentrations, but a sample size of ten or more is necessary to describe the population and capture the high-end tail of the distributions, which are the very hottest peppers., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the therapeutic potential of local capsaicinoid (EMSPOMA(®) cream) treatment on chronic low back pain in patients with degenerative spine diseases and to investigate the possible mechanism of action of the therapy. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of capsaicinoids in EMSPOMA(®) cream were performed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In the clinical study 20 patients with degenerative spine diseases were involved in a self-controlled examination. During the 21 day therapy they received 30 min daily treatment with capsaicinoid (EMSPOMA(®)) cream to the lumbar region of the back. The pain (VASs, Oswestry Disability Index) and the mobility of the lumbar region of the spine (Schober's, Domján's L and R test) were detected at baseline and at the end of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd weeks. The plasma level of somatostatin-like immunoreactivity (SST-LI) was measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) before and after the treatment on the first and the last day of the therapy. Nonivamide (0.01%) was identified as the only capsaicinoid molecule in the cream. In the clinical study the 21 day local nonivamide treatment reduced the pain sensation. Oswestry Disability Index decreased from 39 ± 3.9% to 32.5 ± 4.4%. VASs showed 37.29%-59.51% improvement. In the plasma level of SST-LI threefold elevation was observed after the first nonivamide treatment. We conclude that nonivamide treatment exerts analgesic action in chronic low back pain and causes the release of the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory neuropeptide somatostatin which may play pivotal role in the pain-relieving effect., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Capsaicin (CP), a recent FDA-approved drug for the topical treatment of neuropathic pain, is associated with several side effects like irritation, burning sensation, and erythema, resulting in poor patient compliance. The present study is an attempt to study the effect of CP encasement in nano-lipoidal carriers (NLCs) on skin-transport characteristics, in vivo pharmacological performance, skin compliance, and stability of the finished product. The study also compares two methods of NLC preparation, namely microemulsification and rotary-evaporation for various attributes. The results demonstrated that microemulsion technique produced smaller nanoparticles vis-à-vis the rotary-evaporation method. Out of the various studied solid lipids, NLCs from stearic acid offered smallest size and the highest negative zeta potential. The NLC-gel offered higher skin permeation and skin retention of CP across LACA mice skin as compared with the conventional cream. The analgesic effect was observed to be enhanced substantially than that of the conventional cream when tested on a radiant mouse tail-flick model. The most alarming problems of skin-irritation and redness were successfully taken care by NLC-gel while the mice group receiving conventional cream showed marked changes in the skin histopathology. Besides the enhanced efficacy and decreased skin-irritation, the developed CP-NLCs also found to be stable and rheologically accepted formulation for the treatment of pain-associated disorders.

Capsicum species are not only cultivated as vegetable and condiment crop but are also incorporated into a number of medicinal preparations in the ancient literature around the world. 'Naga chilli' or 'Bhoot Jolokia' (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) is a chilli variety indigenous to the northeast region of India and has been recognized as one of the hottest chilli in the world. It has also been used conventionally in treating various human ailments since time immemorial by the indigenous people of the northeast India. Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin are the two major members of the so-called capsaicinoid family, which includes other minor analogues, and usually account for at least 90 % of the pungency trait in chilli fruits. In the present study, determination of Capsaicinoid content of Bhoot Jolokia (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) under different sowing time and spacing was done. In the Scoville Organoleptic test, the highest Scoville Heat Unit (SHU) value was found in September 15 sowing fruits and the lowest in the February 15 sowing fruits. Fruit produced from spacing 105 cm × 105 cm showed highest Scoville Heat Unit. In High Performance Liquid Chromatography analysis, highest amount of capsaicinoid was also found in September 15 sowing while fruits produced from spacing 105 cm × 105 cm showed highest amount of capsaicinoid. Identification of Nordihydrocapsaicin, Capsaicin and Dihydrocapsaicin was done by comparing the retention time of sample with those of standard.