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Lentil puffs were developed from a mixed design of varying weight fractions of lentil flour (x1), lentil starch concentrate (x2), and lentil protein concentrate (x3) using a twin-screw pilot scale extruder at a dry feed rate of 20 kg/h (d.b.), a water feed rate of 2 kg/h, and an extruder screw speed of 350 rpm. Evaluations of the extrudate properties (expansion ratio, unit density), instrumental texture (hardness, crunchiness, and crispiness), and sensory properties (overall and texture liking, just about right (JAR), and check all that apply (CATA) were conducted, and the optimum lentil puff formulation was determined from sensory liking. Increasing x1 and x2 both increased the expansion ratio of the lentil puffs, whereas the interactions of x3 with x1 and x2 both reduced the unit density. All three formulation factors positively impacted the instrumental crunchiness and crispiness of the lentil puffs, whereas x3 had a larger impact on crunchiness, and x1 and x2 had a larger impact on crispiness. Lentil puff formulations with x3 ≥ 0.66 presented significantly lower sensory liking scores than those with x2 ≥ 0.33. The JAR test revealed that all lentil puff formulations were penalized for not having the right level of hardness, whereas the CATA test identified the crispy and crunchy attributes to positively correlate with overall and texture liking scores. The optimum lentil puff formulation was predicted from a maximum overall liking score of 6.1 and texture liking score of 6.7, to contain 50% (w/w, d.b.) of lentil starch concentrate and 25% of both lentil flour and lentil protein concentrate., (© 2024 Institute of Food Technologists.)

Competing Interests: Conflicts of interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

The widely used high-density polyethylene (HDPE) polymer has inadequate mechanical and thermal properties for structural applications. To overcome this challenge, nano zinc oxide (ZnO) and nano boron oxide (B 2 O 3 ) doped lignin-containing cellulose nanocrystals (L-CNC) were blended in the polymer matrix. The working hypothesis is that lignin will prevent CNC aggregation, and metal oxides will reduce the flammability of polymers by modifying their degradation pathways. This research prepared and incorporated safe, effective, and eco-friendly hybrid systems of nano ZnO/L-CNC and nano B 2 O 3 /L-CNC into the HDPE matrix to improve their physio-mechanical and fire-retardant properties. The composites were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray analysis, thermo-gravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, dynamic mechanical analysis, horizontal burning test, and microcalorimetry test. The results demonstrated a substantial increase in mechanical properties and a reduction in flammability. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) images showed some agglomeration and irregular distribution of the inorganic oxides.

The flammability of synthetic thermoplastic polymers has been recognized as an increasingly important safety problem. The goal of this study was to evaluate a green and safe fire-retardant system comprising of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO). CNCs coated with nano ZnO were incorporated in the high-density polyethylene polymer (HDPE) matrix at different concentrations. Fire testing results of different formulations of HDPE containing 0.4 to 1.0% zinc oxide coated CNC exhibited a substantial decrease in the average mass loss, peak heat release rate and total smoke release. The time to ignition exhibited a positive correlation with CNC-ZnO concentration. Modest improvement in the flexural strength and moduli of composites was noticed validating no adverse effects of CNC-ZnO complex. The transmission electron microscopy further confirmed dispersion of nanoparticles as well as the presence of some nanoparticle aggregates in the matrix. The uniform dispersion of CNC-ZnO complex is expected to further improve fire and mechanical properties of polymer.

Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is widely used in the tire, footwear, and belt industries. SBR products contain a high content of carbon black, which is hazardous to human health and the environment. The goal of this study is to investigate the potential of using bio-based cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) as a replacement for carbon black under simulated industrial formula/processing conditions. CNFs were surface-modified using five different reagents to have either -SH or -C=C functional groups grafted onto their surfaces. Vulcanized SBR sheets reinforced with pristine CNFs, and the five functionalized CNFs were prepared and their properties were tested and compared with those of industrial SBR containing carbon black. All the CNFs, pristine or modified, demonstrated higher reinforcing efficiencies (property increase/amount of reinforcement) than carbon black. The modified CNFs showed even higher reinforcing efficiencies than the pristine ones because of the former's better dispersion and stronger interfacial bonding. The -SH and -C=C functional groups reduced the hydrophilicity of CNFs and allowed chemical linkages between CNFs and SBR to be established during vulcanization. Solvent (toluene) resistance of the rubber was also improved after the incorporation of CNFs because of the barrier effect of the nanofibers and the restrained SBR chain mobility. The latter also led to reduced rubber damping. Although CNFs provide much stronger reinforcement than carbon black, going forward, SBR/CNFs/carbon black hybrid nanocomposites can also be developed to offer tailorable property combinations that meet different application requirements., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Biopolymers are an emerging class of materials being widely pursued due to their ability to degrade in short periods of time. Understanding and evaluating the recyclability of biopolymers is paramount for their sustainable and efficient use in a cost-effective manner. Recycling has proven to be an important solution, to control environmental and waste management issues. This paper presents the first recycling assessment of Solanyl, Bioflex, polylactic acid (PLA) and PHBV using a melt extrusion process. All biopolymers were subjected to five reprocessing cycles. The thermal and mechanical properties of the biopolymers were investigated by GPC, TGA, DSC, mechanical test, and DMA. The molecular weights of Bioflex and Solanyl showed no susceptible effect of the recycling process, however, a significant reduction was observed in the molecular weight of PLA and PHBV. The inherent thermo-mechanical degradation in PHBV and PLA resulted in 20% and 7% reduction in storage modulus, respectively while minimal reduction was observed in the storage modulus of Bioflex and Solanyl. As expected from the Florry-Fox equation, recycled PLA with a high reduction in molecular weight (78%) experienced 9% reduction in glass transition temperature. Bioflex and Solanyl showed 5% and 2% reduction in molecular weight and experienced only 2% reduction in glass transition temperature. These findings highlight the recyclability potential of Bioflex and Solanyl over PLA and PHBV.

This study systematically evaluated the influence of masterbatch preparation techniques, solvent casting and spin-coating methods, on composite properties. Composites were manufactured by combining CNCs masterbatches and PLA resin using twin screw extruder followed by injection molding. Different microscopy techniques were used to investigate the dispersion of CNCs in masterbatches and composites. Thermal, thermomechanical, and mechanical properties of composites were evaluated. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showed superior dispersion of CNCs in spin-coated masterbatches compared to solvent cast masterbatches. At lower CNCs concentrations, both SEM and optical microscope images confirmed more uniform CNCs dispersion in spin-coated composites than solvent cast samples. Degree of crystallinity of PLA exhibited a major enhancement by 147% and 380% in solvent cast and spin-coated composites, respectively. Spin-coated composites with lower CNCs concentration exhibited a noticeable improvement in mechanical properties. However, lower thermal characteristics in spin-coated composites were observed, which could be attributed to the residual solvents in masterbatches., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Lignin is the most abundant of renewable polymers next to cellulose with a global annual production of 70million tons, largely produced from pulping and second generation biofuel industries. Low value of industrial lignin makes it an attractive biomaterial for wide range of applications. The study investigated the application of wheat straw and corn stover based lignin derived from ethanol production for use in thermoset biocomposites. The biocomposite matrix constituted a two component low viscosity Araldite(®)LY 8601/Aradur(®) 8602 epoxy resin system and the lignin content varied from 0 to 25% by weight fraction. The analysis of the physical and mechanical properties of the biocomposites show bioethanol derived lignin can improve selective properties such as impact strength, and thermal stability without compromising the modulus and strength attributes., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)