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Background: Autosomal recessive Gaucher disease (GD) is likely underdiagnosed in many countries. Because the number of diagnosed GD patients in Finland is relatively low, and the true prevalence is currently not known, it was hypothesized that undiagnosed GD patients may exist in Finland. Our previous study demonstrated the applicability of Gaucher Earlier Diagnosis Consensus point-scoring system (GED-C PSS; Mehta et al., 2019) and Finnish biobank data and specimens in the automated point scoring of large populations. An indicative point-score range for Finnish GD patients was determined, but undiagnosed patients were not identified partly due to high number of high-score subjects in combination with a lack of suitable samples for diagnostics in the assessed biobank population. The current study extended the screening to another biobank and evaluated the feasibility of utilising the automated GED-C PSS in conjunction with small nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) chip genotype data from the FinnGen study of biobank sample donors in the identification of undiagnosed GD patients in Finland. Furthermore, the applicability of FFPE tissues and DNA restoration in the next-generation sequencing (NGS) of the GBA gene were tested., Methods: Previously diagnosed Finnish GD patients eligible to the study, and up to 45,100 sample donors in Helsinki Biobank (HBB) were point scored. The GED-C point scoring, adjusted to local data, was automated, but also partly manually verified for GD patients. The SNP chip genotype data for rare GBA variants was visually assessed. FFPE tissues of GD patients were obtained from HBB and Biobank Borealis of Northern Finland (BB)., Results: Three previously diagnosed GD patients and one patient previously treated for GD-related features were included. A genetic diagnosis was confirmed for the patient treated for GD-related features. The GED-C point score of the GD patients was 12.5-22.5 in the current study. The score in eight Finnish GD patients of the previous and the current study is thus 6-22.5 points per patient. In the automated point scoring of the HBB subpopulation (N ≈ 45,100), the overall scores ranged from 0 to 17.5, with 0.77% (346/45,100) of the subjects having ≥10 points. The analysis of SNP chip genotype data was able to identify the diagnosed GD patients, but potential undiagnosed patients with the GED-C score and/or the GBA genotype indicative of GD were not discovered. Restoration of the FFPE tissue DNA improved the quality of the GBA NGS, and pathogenic GBA variants were confirmed in five out of six unrestored and in all four restored FFPE DNA samples., Discussion: These findings imply that the prevalence of diagnosed patients (~1:325,000) may indeed correspond the true prevalence of GD in Finland. The SNP chip genotype data is a valuable tool that complements the screening with the GED-C PSS, especially if the genotyping pipeline is tuned for rare variants. These proof-of-concept biobank tools can be adapted to other rare genetic diseases., Competing Interests: KE is employed by Takeda (Helsinki, Finland) and holds stocks/stock options in Takeda. HH, MP, SM, PB, and OC are employed by Helsinki Biobank (Helsinki, Finland) which received reimbursement from Medaffcon and Takeda, for the work done at the biobank. KU and ML are employed by Medaffcon Oy (Espoo, Finland) which received reimbursement from Takeda, for conducting the study. UWK reports consultancy fees from Medaffcon and Takeda during the study, as well as grant support, paid to her institution, from several foundations for research outside the submitted work. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors., (© 2022 The Authors.)

Epitranscriptomic modifications in RNA can dramatically alter the way our genetic code is deciphered. Cells utilize these modifications not only to maintain physiological processes, but also to respond to extracellular cues and various stressors. Most often, adenosine residues in RNA are targeted, and result in modifications including methylation and deamination. Such modified residues as N -6-methyl-adenosine (m 6 A) and inosine, respectively, have been associated with cardiovascular diseases, and contribute to disease pathologies. The Ischemic Heart Disease Epitranscriptomics and Biomarkers (IHD-EPITRAN) study aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding to their nature and role in cardiovascular pathology. The study hypothesis is that pathological features of IHD are mirrored in the blood epitranscriptome. The IHD-EPITRAN study focuses on m 6 A and A-to-I modifications of RNA. Patients are recruited from four cohorts: (I) patients with IHD and myocardial infarction undergoing urgent revascularization; (II) patients with stable IHD undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting; (III) controls without coronary obstructions undergoing valve replacement due to aortic stenosis and (IV) controls with healthy coronaries verified by computed tomography. The abundance and distribution of m 6 A and A-to-I modifications in blood RNA are charted by quantitative and qualitative methods. Selected other modified nucleosides as well as IHD candidate protein and metabolic biomarkers are measured for reference. The results of the IHD-EPITRAN study can be expected to enable identification of epitranscriptomic IHD biomarker candidates and potential drug targets.

Research has highlighted the association of a positive family history of alcoholism with a positive treatment response to opioid antagonists in those with a gambling disorder. However, the role of the opioidergic system in gambling behavior is not well understood, and preclinical studies are needed to clarify this. In this study, Alko Alcohol (AA) and Wistar rats went through operant lever pressing training where the task was to choose the more profitable of two options. Different sized sucrose rewards guided the lever choices, and the probability of gaining rewards changed slowly to a level where choosing the smaller reward was the most profitable option. After training, rats were administered subcutaneously with opioid agonist morphine or opioid antagonist naltrexone to study the impact of opioidergic mechanisms on cost/benefit decisions. No difference was found in the decision-making between AA rats or Wistar rats after the morphine administration, but control data revealed a minor decision enhancing effect in AA rats. Naltrexone had no impact on the decisions in AA rats but promoted unprofitable decisions in Wistar rats. Supporting behavioral data showed that in both rat strains morphine increased, and naltrexone decreased, sucrose consumption. Naltrexone also increased the time to accomplish the operant task. The results suggest that opioid agonists could improve decision-making in cost-benefit settings in rats that are naturally prone to high alcohol drinking. The naltrexone results are ambiguous but may partly explain why opioid antagonists lack a positive pharmacotherapeutic effect in some subgroups of gamblers., (Copyright © 2020 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

The mechanisms behind relapse to ethanol intake in recovering alcoholics are still unclear. The negative reinforcing effects contributing to ethanol addiction, including relapse, are considered to be partly driven by the κ-opioidergic system. As the κ-opioidergic system interacts with the mesolimbic reward pathway, the aim of the study was to clarify the role of nucleus accumbens shell κ-opioidergic mechanisms in relapse to ethanol intake by using the alcohol deprivation effect (ADE) paradigm. The ADE is defined as a transient increase in voluntary ethanol intake after a forced period of abstinence. Male Long-Evans rats were trained to voluntarily consume 10% (v/v) ethanol solution. Ethanol access and deprivation cycles were initiated after stable ethanol intake baselines had been reached and bilateral guide cannulas had been implanted above the nucleus accumbens shell. One cycle consisted of 10 days of 90 min access to ethanol followed by 6 days of ethanol deprivation. The ADE was measured in the beginning of a new cycle. Rats received JDTic, a selective κ-antagonist, either subcutaneously (10 mg/kg) or intra-accumbally (15 µg/site) or, as a reference substance, systemic naltrexone (0.3 mg/kg) before ethanol re-access, and the effects on the ADE were evaluated. Systemic and intra-accumbal JDTic significantly attenuated the ADE on the first day of ethanol re-access, as did systemic naltrexone. Additionally, naltrexone decreased ethanol intake levels. These results suggest that nucleus accumbens shell κ-opioidergic mechanisms may have a role in mediating relapse to ethanol intake. Additionally, κ-antagonism could be a valuable adjunct in ethanol relapse prevention., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. and ECNP. All rights reserved.)

Rationale: Comorbidity with gambling disorder (GD) and alcohol use disorder (AUD) is well documented., Objective: The purpose of our study was to examine the influence of genetic alcohol drinking tendency on reward-guided decision making behavior of rats and the impact of dopamine releaser D-amphetamine on this behavior., Methods: In this study, Alko alcohol (AA) and Wistar rats went through long periods of operant lever pressing training where the task was to choose the profitable of two options. The lever choices were guided by different-sized sucrose rewards (one or three pellets), and the probability of gaining the larger reward was slowly changed to a level where choosing the smaller reward would be the most profitable in the long run. After training, rats were injected (s.c.) with dopamine releaser D-amphetamine (0.3, 1.0 mg/kg) to study the impact of rapid dopamine release on this learned decision making behavior., Results: Administration of D-amphetamine promoted unprofitable decision making of AA rats more robustly when compared to Wistar rats. At the same time, D-amphetamine reduced lever pressing responses. Interestingly, we found that this reduction in lever pressing was significantly greater in Wistar rats than in AA rats and it was not linked to motivation to consume sucrose., Conclusions: Our results indicate that conditioning to the lever pressing in uncertain environments is more pronounced in AA than in Wistar rats and indicate that the reinforcing effects of a gambling-like environment act as a stronger conditioning factor for rats that exhibit a genetic tendency for high alcohol drinking.

Rationale: Studies suggest that the κ-opioidergic system becomes overactivated as ethanol use disorders develop. Nalmefene, a currently approved treatment for ethanol use disorders, may also elicit some of its main effects via the κ-opioidergic system. However, the exact role of κ-opioid receptors on regulating ethanol intake and contribution to the development of ethanol addiction remains to be elucidated., Objectives: The aim of the present study was to clarify the role of accumbal κ-opioid receptors in controlling ethanol intake in alcohol-preferring Alko Alcohol (AA) rats., Methods: Microinfusions of the long-acting and selective κ-opioid receptor antagonist JDTic (1-15 μg/site) were administered bilaterally into the nucleus accumbens shell of AA rats voluntarily consuming 10% ethanol solution in the intermittent, time-restricted two-bottle choice access paradigm. JDTic (10 mg/kg) was also administered subcutaneously. Both the acute and long-term effects of the treatment on ethanol intake were examined. As a reference, nor-BNI (3 μg/site) was administered intra-accumbally., Results: Systemically administered JDTic decreased ethanol intake significantly 2 days and showed a similar trend 4 days after administration. Furthermore, intra-accumbally administered JDTic showed a weak decreasing effect on ethanol intake long-term but had no acute effects. Intra-accumbal administration of nor-BNI tended to decrease ethanol intake., Conclusions: The results provide further evidence that κ-opioid receptors play a role in controlling ethanol intake and that accumbal κ-opioid receptors participate in the modulation of the reinforcing effects of ethanol. Furthermore, the results suggest that κ-opioid receptor antagonists may be a valuable adjunct in the pharmacotherapy of ethanol use disorders.

R**esults from animal gambling models have highlighted the importance of dopaminergic neurotransmission in modulating decision making when large sucrose rewards are combined with uncertainty. The majority of these models use food restriction as a tool to motivate animals to accomplish operant behavioral tasks, in which sucrose is used as a reward. As enhanced motivation to obtain sucrose due to hunger may impact its reward-seeking effect, we wanted to examine the decision-making behavior of rats in a situation where rats were fed ad libitum. For this purpose, we chose alcohol-preferring AA (alko alcohol) rats, as these rats have been shown to have high preference for sweet agents. In the present study, AA rats were trained to self-administer sucrose pellet rewards in a two-lever choice task (one pellet vs. three pellets). Once rational choice behavior had been established, the probability of gaining three pellets was decreased over time (50%, 33%, 25% then 20%). The effect of d-amphetamine on decision making was studied at every probability level, as well as the effect of the dopamine D 1 receptor agonist SKF-81297 and D 2 agonist quinpirole at probability levels of 100% and 25%. d-Amphetamine increased unprofitable choices in a dose-dependent manner at the two lowest probability levels. Quinpirole increased the frequency of unprofitable decisions at the 25% probability level, and SKF-82197 did not affect choice behavior. These results mirror the findings of probabilistic discounting studies using food-restricted rats. Based on this, the use of AA rats provides a new approach for studies on reward-guided decision making., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: The nucleus accumbens shell is a key brain area mediating the reinforcing effects of ethanol (EtOH). Previously, it has been shown that the density of μ-opioid receptors in the nucleus accumbens shell is higher in alcohol-preferring Alko Alcohol (AA) rats than in alcohol-avoiding Alko Non-Alcohol rats. In addition, EtOH releases opioid peptides in the nucleus accumbens and opioid receptor antagonists are able to modify EtOH intake, all suggesting an opioidergic mechanism in the control of EtOH consumption. As the exact mechanisms of opioidergic involvement remains to be elucidated, the aim of this study was to clarify the role of accumbal μ- and κ-opioid receptors in controlling EtOH intake in alcohol-preferring AA rats., Methods: Microinfusions of the μ-opioid receptor antagonist CTOP (0.3 and 1 μg/site), μ-opioid receptor agonist DAMGO (0.03 and 0.1 μg/site), nonselective opioid receptor agonist morphine (30 μg/site), and κ-opioid receptor agonist U50488H (0.3 and 1 μg/site) were administered via bilateral guide cannulas into the nucleus accumbens shell of AA rats that voluntarily consumed 10% EtOH solution in an intermittent, time-restricted (90-minute) 2-bottle choice access paradigm., Results: CTOP (1 μg/site) significantly increased EtOH intake. Conversely, DAMGO resulted in a decreasing trend in EtOH intake. Neither morphine nor U50488H had any effect on EtOH intake in the used paradigm., Conclusions: The results provide further evidence for the role of accumbens shell μ-opioid receptors but not κ-opioid receptors in mediating reinforcing effects of EtOH and in regulating EtOH consumption. The results also provide support for views suggesting that the nucleus accumbens shell has a major role in mediating EtOH reward., (Copyright © 2016 by the Research Society on Alcoholism.)

We have earlier found that the histamine H3 receptor (H3R) antagonism diminishes motivational aspects of alcohol reinforcement in mice. Here we studied the role of H3Rs in cue-induced reinstatement of alcohol seeking in C57BL/6J mice using two different H3R antagonists. Systemic administration of H3R antagonists attenuated cue-induced alcohol seeking suggesting that H3R antagonists may reduce alcohol craving. To understand how alcohol affects dopamine and histamine release, a microdialysis study was performed on C57BL/6J mice and the levels of histamine, dopamine and dopamine metabolites were measured in the nucleus accumbens. Alcohol administration was combined with an H3R antagonist pretreatment to reveal whether modulation of H3R affects the effects of alcohol on neurotransmitter release. Alcohol significantly increased the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens but did not affect histamine release. Pretreatment with H3R antagonist ciproxifan did not modify the effect of alcohol on dopamine release. However, histamine release was markedly increased with ciproxifan. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that H3R antagonism attenuates cue-induced reinstatement of alcohol seeking in mice. Alcohol alone does not affect histamine release in the nucleus accumbens but H3R antagonist instead increases histamine release significantly suggesting that the mechanism by which H3R antagonist inhibits alcohol seeking found in the present study and the decreased alcohol reinforcement, reward and consumption found earlier might include alterations in the histaminergic neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens. These findings imply that selective antagonists of H3Rs could be a therapeutic strategy to prevent relapse and possibly diminish craving to alcohol use. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Histamine Receptors'., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Milk proteins are the main components of everyday feeding and demonstrate a promising potential to change the mental condition. However, the effects of milk proteins after prolonged use remain poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of two whey proteins (alpha-lactalbumin (alpha-lac) and native whey) with casein on social and individual behaviour in mice. During a 30 d-long dietary intervention, male C57BL/6J mice had ad libitum access to an experimental diet containing 17% (w/w) of one of three protein sources: a-lac, native whey or casein. Mice had voluntary access to a running wheel. Social behaviour (group and resident-intruder activity) was tested at baseline and at the end of the intervention. Half of each dietary group was then withdrawn from the diet and running wheel for 7 d, and social activity and individual behaviour tests (open field, elevated-plus maze, light–dark box and forced swimming) were performed, to evaluate anxiety and depression-like status. The study shows that the long-term ingestion of whey proteins may modulate behaviour when compared with casein. Diet enriched with a-lac exhibited anxiolytic and antidepressive activities while the whey diet improved sociability. The differences between the diet groups were pronounced under the running wheel and the withdrawal of the experimental diet, suggesting that the beneficial effects of the milk proteins are clearer in stressful situations. Diet-induced behavioural changes remained visible for a week after feeding, which suggests that the proteins of the milk whey fraction have prolonged efficacy on the mental state of mice.

Objectives: This study compared results on cognitive tests measuring nonverbal visualization and reasoning, executive functions, and creativity between 36 boys with experience of living in the street and 31 housed yet socioeconomically equivalent boys, in Bolivia., Results: The street children scored significantly higher on the creativity measure, which is discussed in relation to contextual relevance. No significant differences were found on the other cognitive tests. Time elapsed after living in the street and drug use were strongly associated with cognition, while age was not. Both groups scored below average compared to Western norms. The results are discussed in terms of the cultural relevance of the tests and the impact of socioeconomic status, stress, and stimulation on cognition.

In state-dependency, information retrieval is most efficient when the animal is in the same state as it was during the information acquisition. State-dependency has been implicated in a variety of learning and memory processes, but its mechanisms remain to be resolved. Here, mice deficient in AMPA-type glutamate receptor GluA1 subunits were first conditioned to morphine (10 or 20 mg/kg s.c. during eight sessions over four days) using an unbiased procedure, followed by testing for conditioned place preference at morphine states that were the same as or different from the one the mice were conditioned to. In GluA1 wildtype littermate mice the same-state morphine dose produced the greatest expression of place preference, while in the knockout mice no place preference was then detected. Both wildtype and knockout mice expressed moderate morphine-induced place preference when not at the morphine state (saline treatment at the test); in this case, place preference was weaker than that in the same-state test in wildtype mice. No correlation between place preference scores and locomotor activity during testing was found. Additionally, as compared to the controls, the knockout mice showed unchanged sensitization to morphine, morphine drug discrimination and brain regional μ-opioid receptor signal transduction at the G-protein level. However, the knockout mice failed to show increased AMPA/NMDA receptor current ratios in the ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons of midbrain slices after a single injection of morphine (10 mg/kg, s.c., sliced prepared 24 h afterwards), in contrast to the wildtype mice. The results indicate impaired drug-induced state-dependency in GluA1 knockout mice, correlating with impaired opioid-induced glutamate receptor neuroplasticity.

Partial dopamine agonists are potential medications for the treatment of amphetamine addiction. They have been hypothesized to stabilize the dopamine system by acting as antagonists during high dopaminergic tone resulting from amphetamine use and as agonists during withdrawal. Aripiprazole is an atypical antipsychotic that acts as a partial D2 dopamine and a serotonin 5-HT₁(A) agonist and a serotonin 5-HT₂(A) antagonist. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of aripiprazole on behaviors induced and maintained by d-amphetamine. To this end, intravenous d-amphetamine self-administration [fixed ratio 3 (FR3) schedule, 0.02 mg/infusion] and d-amphetamine-induced (0, 1.5 mg/kg intraperitoneally) locomotor activity, as well as spontaneous locomotor activity and sucrose pellet selfadministration (FR3 schedule) were studied in male Wistar rats after aripiprazole (0, 0.3, 1, 3 mg/kg i.p.) administration. Aripiprazole pre-treatment resulted in bidirectional effects on amphetamine self-administration. The 1 mg/kg dose increased, and the highest dose decreased the number of amphetamine infusions. In the locomotor activity experiments, aripiprazole attenuated amphetamine-induced activity dose-dependently and tended to suppress spontaneous activity. The highest aripiprazole doses decreased also sucrose pellet self-administration. The increase in amphetamine self-administration with the intermediate aripiprazole dose, as well as the decrease in amphetamine-induced locomotor activity, suggests that aripiprazole acted as a dopamine antagonist. Suppression of amphetamine and sucrose self-administration by the highest aripiprazole dose was probably caused by non-specific effects. Together, these results indicate that under conditions of dopaminergic stimulation, aripiprazole attenuates the reinforcing and psychomotor stimulant effects of d-amphetamine, but the dose range for this effect is rather limited.

Rationale: Nucleus accumbens glutamate transmission has been implicated in drug-seeking behavior, but the involvement of glutamate receptor subtypes in drug seeking maintained by drug-associated cues has not been fully investigated., Objective: This study examined the effects of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)/kainate, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and mGlu5 receptor blockade in the nucleus accumbens core on cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking., Method: Wistar rats were trained to self-administer cocaine and associate a compound stimulus (light and tone) with the drug under an FR4(FR5:S) second-order schedule of reinforcement. After extinction, during which neither cocaine nor the compound stimulus was available, responding was reinstated by contingent presentations of the compound stimulus. The effects of the intra-accumbal AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist 6-cyano-7-nitro-quinoxaline-2, 3-dione (CNQX; 0, 0.01, and 0.03 microg/side), the NMDA antagonist D-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoate (D-AP5; 0, 1, and 2 microg/side), and the mGluR5 antagonist 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP; 0, 0.5, and 1 microg/side) on reinstatement were examined in a within-subjects design., Results: CNQX and D-AP5 attenuated cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking dose-dependently. MPEP, however, decreased cocaine seeking only relative to baseline because also the saline vehicle included in the within-subjects series of injections decreased responding, possibly reflecting conditioned anhedonic effects of MPEP. In additional experiments, none of the antagonists attenuated locomotor activity or responding for sucrose pellets., Conclusions: The results suggest that cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking after a period of withdrawal from cocaine is sensitive to AMPA/kainate and NMDA receptor antagonism in the nucleus accumbens core and give further evidence for the role of the accumbal glutamate transmission in modulation of drug-seeking behavior.

Neuroanatomical and pharmacological evidence implicates glutamate transmission in drug-environment conditioning that partly controls drug seeking and relapse. Glutamate receptors could be targets for pharmacological attenuation of the motivational properties of drug-paired cues and for relapse prevention. The purpose of the present study was therefore to investigate the involvement of ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptor subtypes in cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior. Rats were trained to self-administer cocaine using a second-order schedule of reinforcement (FR4(FR5:S)) under which a compound stimulus (light and tone) associated with cocaine infusions was presented contingently. Following extinction, the effects of the competitive NMDA receptor antagonist CGP 39551 (0, 2.5, 5, 10 mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.)), two competitive AMPA/kainate antagonists, CNQX (0, 0.75, 1.5, 3 mg/kg i.p.) and NBQX (0, 1.25, 2.5, 5 mg/kg i.p.), the NMDA/glycine site antagonist L-701,324 (0, 0.63, 1.25, 2.5 mg/kg i.p.), and the mGluR5 antagonist MPEP (0, 1.25, 2.5, 5 mg/kg i.p.) on cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking were examined. The AMPA/kainate receptor antagonists CNQX and NBQX, the NMDA/glycine site antagonist L-701,324, and the mGluR5 antagonist MPEP attenuated significantly cue-induced reinstatement. The NMDA antagonist CGP 39551 failed to affect reinstatement. Additional control experiments indicated that attenuation of cue-induced reinstatement by CNQX, NBQX, L-701,324, and MPEP was not accompanied by significant suppression of spontaneous locomotor activity. These results suggest that conditioned influences on cocaine seeking depend on glutamate transmission. Accordingly, drugs with antagonist properties at various glutamate receptor subtypes could be useful in prevention of relapse induced by conditioned stimuli.

Glutamatergic neurotransmission has been suggested to modulate cue-induced drug-seeking behavior. Here we examined the effects of metabotropic glutamate receptor agonists on alcohol self-administration and cue-induced reinstatement. Rats were trained to self-administer 10% w/v ethanol under an FR1 schedule of reinforcement during 30-min sessions. In the reinstatement experiments, ethanol and a non-rewarding quinine solution (available on alternating days) were paired with olfactory stimuli (S+/S-) as well as light (CS+) or tone (CS-) stimuli. Following extinction training, reinstatement of responding was induced by the ethanol-associated stimuli (S+/CS+). The mGlu2/3 receptor agonist LY379268 (0, 1, 3 and 5 mg/kg i.p.) and the mGlu8 receptor agonist (S)-3,4-DCPG (0, 5, 10 and 15 mg/kg i.p.) attenuated alcohol self-administration and reinstatement at doses that decreased also spontaneous locomotor activity. The results suggest that metabotropic glutamate receptors may have a role in the modulation of alcohol seeking and self-administration. However, further studies with ligands with fewer motor-suppressant side effects are needed.

The glutamatergic system plays an important role in mediating neurobehavioral effects of ethanol. Metabotropic glutamate receptors subtype 5 (mGluR5) are modulators of glutamatergic neurotransmission and are abundant in brain regions known to be involved in ethanol self-administration. Here, we studied the effects of 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP), a highly potent, noncompetitive mGlu5 receptor antagonist, on voluntary ethanol consumption and relapse behavior. For this purpose, we used two models for the measurement of relapse behavior: (i) reinstatement of ethanol-seeking behavior by drug-associated cues and (ii) the alcohol deprivation effect in long-term ethanol-consuming rats. In the first set of experiments, rats were trained to lever press for ethanol in the presence of a distinct set of cues. After extinction, the animals were exposed to the respective cues that initiated reinstatement of responding. A response-contingent ethanol prime further enhanced responding compared to the conditioned cues alone. Under these conditions, MPEP (0, 1, 3, and 10 mg/kg) attenuated ethanol seeking significantly and in a dose-related manner. However, at the highest dose, MPEP also decreased the number of inactive lever responses. In the second set of experiments, rats with 1 year of ethanol experience and repeated deprivation phases were used. A subchronic treatment with MPEP (twice daily; 0, 3, and 10 mg/kg) resulted in a significant and dose-dependent reduction of the alcohol deprivation effect (ADE). Although the same MPEP treatment regimen decreased baseline drinking, this effect was not as pronounced as on the ADE. These results show in two commonly used models of relapse to ethanol that pharmacological targeting of mGlu5 receptors may be a promising approach for the treatment of alcoholism.

Background: Glutamatergic neurotransmission has been implicated in drug-environment conditioning, but little is known about the role of glutamate in alcohol seeking maintained by alcohol-associated cues. Therefore, we examined the effects of ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists on cue-induced ethanol-seeking behavior in the extinction/reinstatement model., Methods: Rats were trained to orally self-administer ethanol (10% w/v) and a nonrewarding (80 microM) quinine solution on randomly alternating days. Ethanol and quinine availability were signaled by olfactory discriminative stimuli (S+/S-). In addition, ethanol delivery was accompanied by a light stimulus (CS+) and quinine delivery by an auditory stimulus (CS-). Thereafter, rats were subjected to extinction training during which responding had no programmed consequences. Reinstatement of responding was tested under three conditions: in the presence of the S-/CS-, S+/CS+, and S+/CS+ together with a small (0.2 ml) response-contingent oral ethanol dose at the beginning of the reinstatement session (S+/CS+/priming). We examined the effects of the noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 (0, 0.05, 0.15 mg/kg intraperitoneally), the competitive NMDA antagonist CGP39551 (0, 5, 10 mg/kg intraperitoneally), the NMDA/glycine receptor antagonist L-701,324 (0, 2, 4 mg/kg intraperitoneally), the AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist CNQX (0, 0.5, 1.5 mg/kg intraperitoneally), and the opioid receptor antagonist naltrexone (0, 0.3, 1 mg/kg subcutaneously) on ethanol seeking under the S+/CS+/priming condition., Results: Presentation of the S+/CS+ stimulus condition reinstated extinguished responding, whereas presentation of the S-/CS- condition did not. Response-contingent ethanol priming enhanced reinstatement further. Under these reinstatement conditions, L-701,324, CNQX, and naltrexone inhibited ethanol-seeking behavior significantly. In contrast, MK-801 and CGP39551 failed to affect reinstated responding., Conclusions: These results show that glutamate antagonism suppresses ethanol-seeking behavior induced by ethanol-paired stimuli. Furthermore, the data suggest that ionotropic glutamate receptors may have differential roles in mediation of this behavior.

Alcohol-preferring AA (Alko Alcohol) and alcohol-avoiding ANA (Alko Non-Alcohol) rats have well-documented differences in their voluntary ethanol consumption and brain opioidergic systems. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether these rat lines differ in their susceptibility to morphine-induced behavioural and neurochemical sensitization. The rats were given 15 injections of morphine (10 mg/kg, s.c.) or saline every other day. Locomotor activity and release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens were monitored after a challenge with additional morphine injections (10 mg/kg) 1 and 5 weeks after withdrawal from the repeated treatment. Morphine increased locomotion more in the previously morphine-treated rats than in the saline-treated controls. Furthermore, AA rats were more sensitive to this effect of morphine than ANA rats. Accumbal morphine-induced dopamine release was significantly higher in the morphine-treated AA than ANA rats after the first challenge injection 1 week from withdrawal, but no differences were observed after the second challenge. The brain and plasma concentrations of morphine were similar among the lines suggesting that the differences in the effects of morphine cannot be explained in terms of differential pharmacokinetics of morphine in these lines. These data show that AA rats are more susceptible to morphine-induced behavioural sensitization than ANA rats. Furthermore, it suggests that mesolimbic dopamine has at best only a transient role in the expression of opioid-induced behavioural sensitization. The relationship between the mechanisms underlying the differential sensitivity of these rat lines to the effects of repeated morphine and voluntary ethanol drinking remains to be determined.

Rationale: It has been suggested previously that conditioned effects on drug-seeking behaviour are in part mediated through glutamatergic neurotransmission., Objectives: To optimise a second-order schedule of IV cocaine reinforcement in Wistar rats and investigate the effects of the systemic AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist CNQX on cocaine-seeking behaviour under this schedule., Methods: Free-feeding Wistar rats were trained to respond for an IV cocaine infusion (0.25 mg/infusion) under a FI15 min(FR7:S) schedule, whereby the completion of FR7 responses led to the presentation of a conditioned stimulus (CS). After two 15-min fixed intervals, rats were allowed to respond for cocaine under an FR4(FR7:S) second-order schedule for another 120 min. After acquisition of stable responding, the cocaine unit dose was increased to 0.50 mg/infusion. The effects of CNQX (0, 0.75, 1.5, and 3 mg/kg IP) on cocaine seeking were then examined using a within-subjects design., Results: Increasing the cocaine unit dose increased responding during the first and second intervals, with a decrease in the latency to the first CS. CNQX decreased the number of cocaine responses in a dose-dependent manner during the first 15-min cocaine-free interval, but did not affect cocaine responding during either the second interval or the latter part of the session under the FR4(FR7:S) schedule. In the locomotor activity test, reductions in rearing were produced by higher CNQX doses than those that attenuated significantly responding during the first fixed interval., Conclusions: These results suggest that AMPA/kainate receptors are involved in mediation of cocaine-seeking behaviour controlled partly by cocaine-associated cues.

This article represents the proceedings of a symposium at the ISBRA Meeting in Yokohama, Japan. The chairs were A. D. Lê and K. Kiianmaa. The presentations were (1) Alcohol reward and aversion, by C. L. Cunningham; (2) The role of sensitization of neuronal mechanisms in ethanol self-administration, by J. A. Engel, M. Ericson, and B. Söderpalm; (3) Alcohol self-administration in dependent animals: Neurobiological mechanisms, by G. F. Koob, A. J. Roberts, and F. Weiss; (4) Stress and relapse to alcohol, by A. D. Lê; (5) Alcohol-preferring AA and alcohol-avoiding ANA rats differ in locomotor activation induced by repeated morphine injections, by P. Hyytiä, S. Janhunen, J. Mikkola, P. Bäckström, and K. Kiianmaa; and (6) Initial sensitivity and acute functional tolerance to the hypnotic effects of ethanol in mice genetically selected for mild and severe ethanol withdrawal convulsions, by I. Ponomarev and J. C. Crabbe.

Background: Identification of the brain regions involved in ethanol administration is important for understanding the neurobiology of ethanol addiction. Animal studies with different brain mapping techniques found that voluntary ethanol self-administration leads to changes in activity of specific brain regions in patterns that only partially overlap with patterns of brain regions affected by involuntary (i.e., experimenter-administered) ethanol administration. As an extension of studies mapping changes in neural activity after voluntary ethanol drinking, this study analyzed expression of the inducible transcription factor c-Fos after ethanol consumption in an operant procedure., Methods: AA (Alko alcohol) rats were trained to operantly respond for water, 0.2% saccharin, 0.2% saccharin/10% (w/v) ethanol, or 10% ethanol in a 30-min limited-access procedure. Animals were allowed to self-administer solutions for at least 40 ethanol response sessions and were killed 1.5 hr after beginning of the last session. Forty-seven brain regions were immunohistochemically analyzed for c-Fos expression., Results: In this paradigm, ethanol dose-dependently increased c-Fos expression in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus (EW) and decreased expression in the dorsal tenia tecta compared with no-ethanol controls. No effects of saccharin on c-Fos expression were found., Conclusions: Our results extend previous findings of preferential sensitivity of EW to alcohol in voluntary self-administration procedures to operant responding for ethanol and warrant further investigation of ethanol's effects on the EW. The finding that ethanol attenuated c-Fos expression in the tenia tecta is novel. Taken together, these findings confirm that voluntary ethanol self-administration leads to changes in activity of a limited number of brain regions with previously unexamined roles in ethanol sensitivity and addiction.

The effects of site-specific NMDA receptor antagonists on intravenous cocaine self-administration were examined in rats trained to self-administer cocaine (0.25 mg/infusion) on a fixed ratio (FR) 5 schedule with a 20-s time-out (TO) after each reinforcer. The non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonists, dizocilpine (MK-801, (+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclohepten-5,10-imine hydrogen maleate) (0.05-0.2 mg/kg i.p.) and memantine (1,3-dimethyl-5-amino-adamantane hydrochloride) (2.5-20 mg/kg i.p.), dose-dependently decreased cocaine self-administration, while the competitive NMDA receptor antagonist, CGP 39551 (DL-(E)-2-amino-4-methyl-5-phosphono-3-pentanoic acid carboxyethylester) (2.5-15 mg/kg i.p.), and the NMDA/glycine receptor antagonist, L-701,324 (7-chloro-4-hydroxy-3(3-phenoxy)-phenyl-2(H)quinolone) (1.25-10 mg/kg p.o.), were without effect. Under a progressive ratio (PR) schedule, dizocilpine (0.15 mg/kg i.p.) increased the number of cocaine infusions in a manner similar to increasing the unit dose of cocaine, suggestive of potentiation of cocaine reward. Conversely, memantine (10 mg/kg i.p.) produced rate-decreasing effects on the PR schedule. These results demonstrate that NMDA receptor antagonists acting at different modulatory sites of the NMDA receptor do not share dizocilpine's cocaine reward enhancing effects although they are all known to be effective blockers of NMDA receptor activity.

A microprocessor-based device was constructed to retrieve single unit activity from nerve recordings contaminated by other units and EMG activity. The microneurographic signal is sampled at 10 kHz and an algorithm applied to identify impulses from a single nerve fibre. On line, a TTL pulse is delivered when an event, i.e. a provisional nerve impulse, is selected. The wave form and clock time of events are stored. Moreover, the latest selected event and the actual selection criteria are continuously displayed on a standard oscilloscope. Off line, the wave form and clock time of events as well as an instantaneous frequency plot can be displayed on the oscilloscope. The final selection of events is done with a combination of a second algorithm, which essentially is a wave form comparator, and a manual check. The device is controlled either by hardware, with knobs on the front panel, or by software through a data bus connected to a microcomputer. Clock times and wave forms of the events, which are stored in the microprocessor memory, may also be presented on the data bus for later off-line analysis and coordination with other related signals collected during the experiment, e.g. transducer and electromyography records, whether these were stored on analog or digital tape or computer disc. Compared to other available techniques, the device has a superior discriminative power when electromyographic artefacts are present.