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Dual amylin and calcitonin receptor agonists (DACRAs) are novel candidates for treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity because of their beneficial effects on body weight, blood glucose, insulin sensitivity, and food preference, at least short-term. DACRAs activate the receptors for a prolonged time period, resulting in metabolic effects superior to those of amylin. Because of the prolonged receptor activation, different dosing intervals and, hence, less frequent receptor activation might change the efficacy of DACRA treatment in terms of weight loss and food preference. In this study, we compared daily dosing to dosing every other day with the aim of understanding the optimal balance between efficacy and tolerability. Obese and lean male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with the DACRA KBP-088, applying two different dosing intervals (1.5 nmol/kg once daily and 3 nmol/kg every other day) to assess the effect on body weight, food intake, glucose tolerance, and food preference when given the choice between chow (13% fat) and a high-fat diet (60% fat). Treatment with KBP-088 induced significant weight loss, reduction in adiposity, improvement in glucose control, and altered food preference toward food that is less calorie-dense. KBP-088 dosed every other day (3 nmol/kg) was superior to KBP-088 once daily (1.5 nmol/kg) in terms of weight loss and improvement of food preference. The beneficial effects were evident in both lean and obese rats. Hence, dosing KBP-088 every other day positively affects overall efficacy on metabolic parameters regardless of the lean/obese state, suggesting that less-frequent dosing with KBP-088 could be feasible. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Here, we show that food preference can be altered chronically toward choices that are less calorie-dense by pharmacological treatment. Further, pharmacological dosing regimens affect the efficacy differently, as dosing every other day improved body weight loss and alterations in food preference compared with daily dosing. This suggest that alterations of the dosing regimens could be feasible in the treatment of obesity., (Copyright © 2020 by The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics.)

Background: Pain is a debilitating symptom of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), caused by joint inflammation and cartilage and bone destruction. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used to treat pain and inflammation in RA, but are not disease-modifying and do not prevent joint destruction when administered alone. KBPs (Key Bioscience peptides) are synthetic peptides based on salmon calcitonin and are expected to inhibit bone resorption and to be chondroprotective. In this study, we investigated if combining a standard of care NSAID (naproxen) with a KBP resulted in improvement in pain scores, as well as disease activity and structural damage in a rat model of RA., Methods: Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) was induced in 40 female Lewis rats by immunization with porcine type II collagen; 10 rats were given sham injections. CIA rats were treated with KBP and/or naproxen. Health scores and joint scores were evaluated daily. Mechanical and cold allodynia tests and burrowing tests were used to assess pain-like behaviors. Blood samples were collected for biomarker testing, and paws were collected for histology and microcomputed tomography., Results: Naproxen monotherapy increased the time until humane endpoints was reached, and improved health score, pain assessments, and trabecular thickness, while KBP monotherapy did not result in improvements. Combination therapy had improved efficacy over naproxen monotherapy; combination therapy resulted in improved health scores, and importantly reduced mechanical and cold allodynia assessment. Furthermore, protection of articular cartilage structure and preservation of bone structure and bone volume were also observed., Conclusions: This study demonstrates that combining KBP and naproxen may be a relevant therapeutic strategy for RA, resulting in improvements to the overall health, pain, inflammation, and joint structure.

KBP-042 is a dual amylin and calcitonin receptor agonist that increases glucose tolerance and insulin action and reduces body weight in rat models of obesity and prediabetes. The objective of the present study was to 1) evaluate KBP-042 as a treatment of late-stage type 2 diabetes in a rat model and 2) assess the value of adding KBP-042 to the standard of care, metformin, to consider KBP-042 as a relevant drug for treating patients with type 2 diabetes. Two studies were included: an intervention study and a prevention study. In the intervention study, treatment with 5 µ g/kg KBP-042 was initiated in 11-week-old Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats, in which glucose tolerance, fasting glycemia, and glycated hemoglobin were assessed after 4 weeks. In the prevention study, either metformin (400 mg/kg), KBP-042 (5 µ g/kg), or a combination of both were administered to ZDF rats for a total of 9 weeks. Glycemia, glucose tolerance, and insulin tolerance were tested. Furthermore, fasting plasma insulin and glucagon levels were evaluated. Finally, pancreatic content of insulin was assessed as a surrogate marker of beta-cell mass. It was found that KBP-042 was efficient in lowering fasting plasma glucose as well as improving glucose tolerance, both as prevention and intervention of disease progression. Furthermore, KBP-042 was efficient in combination with metformin and had additional effects compared with either therapy alone. In conclusion, KBP-042 is a highly relevant therapeutic candidate against type 2 diabetes, effective both as an add-on therapy to metformin and as a stand-alone therapy., (Copyright © 2017 by The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics.)

KBP-042 is a synthetic peptide dual amylin- and calcitonin-receptor agonist (DACRA) developed to treat type 2 diabetes by inducing a significant weight loss while improving glucose homeostasis. In this study the aim was to compare two different formulations: An oral formulation (1mg/kg) to subcutaneous formulations of KBP-042 (2.5μg/kg, 5.0μg/kg and 7.5μg/kg) with comparable pharmacokinetic profiles. Furthermore to examine if differences in mode of action between the two different routes of administration in high-fat fed Sprague-Dawley rats were present. It was established that the subcutaneous administrations of KBP-042 were able to dose-dependently cause a significant weight-loss, reduce food intake, and improve glucose homeostasis without increasing insulin secretion, effects comparable to those observed with oral administration. At the same time, s.c. KBP-042 suppressed the inappropriate glucagon response better than the oral formulation. Furthermore, KBP-042 was found to reduce incretins GLP-1 and GIP and considerably, improve gastric emptying, and to alleviate leptin resistance, as well as insulin resistance. In conclusion, the subcutaneous route of administration was found to have the same beneficial effects on blood glucose homeostasis and weight loss as well as resistance towards important insulin and leptin, albeit with a markedly lower variation in both exposure and biological responses. These data support the application of subcutaneously delivered peptide for mechanistic studies, and highlight the potential of developing s.c. KBP-042 as a therapy for T2D., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

We previously reported that oral delivery of salmon calcitonin (sCT) improved energy and glucose homeostasis and attenuated diabetic progression in animal models of diet-induced obesity (DIO) and type 2 diabetes, although the glucoregulatory mode of action was not fully elucidated. In the present study we hypothesized that oral sCT as pharmacological intervention 1) exerted anti-hyperglycemic efficacy, and 2) enhanced insulin action in DIO-streptozotocin (DIO-STZ) diabetic rats. Diabetic hyperglycemia was induced in male selectively bred DIO rats by a single low dose (30mg/kg) injection of STZ. Oral sCT by gavage was delivered as once-daily administration with lead-in (2mg/kg) and maintenance (0.5mg/kg) dose of oral sCT for a total of 21 days. Food intake, body weight, blood glucose, HbA1c, glucose and insulin tolerance test, and parameters of insulin sensitivity were investigated. Plasma glucoregulatory hormones and pancreatic insulin content were analyzed. Oral sCT treatment induced a pronounced anorectic action during the 7 days lead-in period and markedly reduced food intake and body weight in conjunction with improved glucose homeostasis. During the maintenance period, oral sCT normalized food intake and attenuated weight loss, albeit sustained glycemic control by reducing fasting blood glucose and HbA1c levels compared to those of vehicle-treated rats at the end of study. Notably, plasma levels of insulin, glucagon, leptin and adiponectin were unaltered, albeit insulin action was enhanced in conjunction with protection of pancreatic insulin content. The results of the present study indicate that oral sCT exerts a novel insulin-sensitizing effect to improve glucose metabolism in obesity and type 2 diabetes., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The present study investigated a novel oral dual amylin and calcitonin receptor agonist (DACRA), KBP-042, in head-to-head comparison with salmon calcitonin (sCT) with regard to in vitro receptor pharmacology, ex vivo pancreatic islet studies, and in vivo proof of concept studies in diet-induced obese (DIO) and Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats. In vitro, KBP-042 demonstrated superior binding affinity and activation of amylin and calcitonin receptors, and ex vivo, KBP-042 exerted inhibitory action on stimulated insulin and glucagon release from isolated islets. In vivo, KBP-042 induced a superior and pronounced reduction in food intake in conjunction with a sustained pair-fed corrected weight loss in DIO rats. Concomitantly, KBP-042 improved glucose homeostasis and reduced hyperinsulinemia and hyperleptinemia in conjunction with enhanced insulin sensitivity. In ZDF rats, KBP-042 induced a superior attenuation of diabetic hyperglycemia and alleviated impaired glucose and insulin tolerance. Concomitantly, KBP-042 preserved insulinotropic and induced glucagonostatic action, ultimately preserving pancreatic insulin and glucagon content. In conclusion, oral KBP-042 is a novel DACRA, which exerts antiobesity and antidiabetic efficacy by dual modulation of insulin sensitivity and directly decelerating stress on the pancreatic α- and β-cells. These results could provide the basis for oral KBP-042 as a novel therapeutic agent in type 2 diabetes., (Copyright © 2014 the American Physiological Society.)

Objective: Oral salmon calcitonin (sCT) has demonstrated clinical efficacy in treating osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. The postmenopausal state is also associated with obesity-related insulin resistance (IR) and type 2 diabetes. The aim of this study was to investigate the preventive effects of oral sCT on energy and glucose homeostasis in high-fat diet (HFD)- and ovariectomy (OVX)-induced obese rats. Furthermore, the weight-regulatory and gluco-regulatory effects of short-term oral sCT intervention on HFD-induced obese rats were explored., Methods: For prevention, female rats exposed to HFD with or without OVX were treated with oral sCT for 5 weeks. As intervention, HFD-induced obese male rats were treated with oral sCT for 4 days. Body weight, food intake, and plasma glucose, insulin, and leptin levels were measured, and the clinical homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) index was calculated. In addition, oral glucose tolerance was evaluated in the systemic and portal circulations., Results: For prevention, oral sCT reduced body weight by ∼16% to 19% (P < 0.001), reduced plasma insulin and leptin by ∼50%, and improved impaired fasting glycemia (P < 0.05) concomitantly with amelioration of IR (HOMA-IR; P < 0.01) in HFD- and OVX-induced obesity. Furthermore, oral sCT significantly reduced the incremental area under the curve for plasma glucose and insulin by ∼40% and ∼70%, respectively, during glucose tolerance testing. As intervention in HFD-induced obese rats, oral sCT reduced body weight, fasting glycemia, and insulinemia in conjunction with HOMA-IR (P < 0.001). Finally, oral sCT alleviated glucose intolerance predominantly in the portal circulation., Conclusions: Oral sCT treatment displays weight-regulatory and glucoregulatory efficacy in HFD- and OVX-induced obese rats, indicating the clinical usefulness of oral sCT in postmenopausal obesity-related IR and type 2 diabetes.

Disease heterogeneity is as major issue in Type II Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM), and this patient inter-variability might not be sufficiently reflected by measurements of glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c).Β-cell dysfunction and β-cell death are initiating factors in development of T2DM. In fact, β-cells are known vanish prior to the development of T2DM, and autopsy of overt T2DM patients have shown a 60% reduction in β-cell mass.As the decline in β-cell function and mass have been proven to be pathological traits in T2DM, methods for evaluating β-cell loss is becoming of more interest. However, evaluation of β-cell death or loss is currently invasive and unattainable for the vast majority of diabetes patients. Serological markers, reflecting β-cell loss would be advantageous to detect and monitor progression of T2DM. Biomarkers with such capacities could be neo-epitopes of proteins with high β-cell specificity containing post translational modifications. Such tools may segregate T2DM patients into more appropriate treatment groups, based on their β-cell status, which is currently not possible. Presently individuals presenting with adequately elevated levels of both insulin and glucose are classified as T2DM patients, while an important subdivision of those is pending, namely those patients with sufficient β-cell capacity and those without. This may warrant two very different treatment options and patient care paths.Serological biomarkers reflecting β-cell health status may also assist development of new drugs for T2DM and aid physicians in better characterization of individual patients and tailor individual treatments and patient care protocols.

Osteoclasts are known to be important for the coupling process between bone resorption and formation. The aim of this study was to address when osteoclasts are anabolically active. Human monocytes were differentiated into mature osteoclasts by treatment with M-CSF and RANKL. Conditioned medium was collected from macrophages, pre-osteoclasts, and mature functional or non-resorbing osteopetrotic osteoclasts on either bone, plastic, decalcified bone or dentine with or without diphyllin, E64 or GM6001. Osteoclasts numbers were measured by TRACP activity. Bone resorption was evaluated by CTX-I and calcium release. The osteoblastic cell line 2T3 was treated with 50% of CM or non-CM for 12days. Bone formation was assessed by Alizarin Red extraction. CM from mature osteoclasts induced bone formation, while CM from macrophages did not. Non-resorbing osteoclasts generated from osteopetrosis patients showed little resorption, but still an induction of bone formation by osteoblasts. Mimicking the reduction in bone resorption using the V-ATPase inhibitor Diphyllin, the cysteine proteinase inhibitor E64 and the MMP-inhibitor GM6001 showed that CM from diphyllin and E64 treated osteoclasts showed reduced ability to induce bone formation compared to CM from vehicle treated osteoclasts, while CM from GM6001 treated osteoclasts equaled vehicle CM. Osteoclasts on either dentine or decalcified bone showed strongly attenuated anabolic capacities. In conclusion, we present evidence that osteoclasts, both dependent and independent of their resorptive activity, secrete factors stimulating osteoblastic bone formation., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Glucocorticoids are known to attenuate bone formation in vivo leading to decreased bone volume and increased risk of fractures, whereas effects on the joint tissue are less characterized. However, glucocorticoids appear to have a reducing effect on inflammation and pain in osteoarthritis. This study aimed at characterizing the effect of glucocorticoids on chondrocytes, osteoclasts, and osteoblasts., Experimental: We used four model systems to investigate how glucocorticoids affect the cells of the joint; two intact tissues (femoral head- and cartilage-explants), and two separate cell cultures of osteoblasts (2T3-pre-osteoblasts) and osteoclasts (CD14(+)-monocytes). The model systems were cultured in the presence of two glucocorticoids; prednisolone or dexamethasone. To induce anabolic and catabolic conditions, cultures were activated by insulin-like growth factor I/bone morphogenetic protein 2 and oncostatin M/tumor necrosis factor-α, respectively. Histology and markers of bone- and cartilage-turnover were used to evaluate effects of glucocorticoid treatment., Results: Prednisolone treatment decreased collagen type-II degradation in immature cartilage, whereas glucocorticoids did not affect collagen type-II in mature cartilage. Glucocorticoids had an anti-catabolic effect on catabolic-activated cartilage from a bovine stifle joint and murine femoral heads. Glucocorticoids decreased viability of all bone cells, leading to a reduction in osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption; however, bone morphogenetic protein 2-stimulated osteoblasts increased bone formation, as opposed to non-stimulated osteoblasts., Conclusions: Using highly robust in vitro models of bone and cartilage turnover, we suggest that effects of glucocorticoids highly depend on the activation and differential stage of the cell targeted in the joint. Present data indicated that glucocorticoid treatment may be beneficial for articular cartilage, although detrimental effects on bone should be taken into account., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)