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Introduction: Prostacyclin (PGI 2 ) is synthetized by PGI 2 synthase (PGIS) and induces vasorelaxation via activation of cyclic AMP (cAMP) generating IP-receptor. Several components of the PGI 2 signaling pathway are reduced in patients with pulmonary hypertension (PH)., Aim: To study the effect of 17β-estradiol (E2) on the PGI 2 signaling pathway in human pulmonary arteries (HPA) and in their smooth muscle cells (hPASMC) derived from Group-3 PH and non-PH patients., Methods: Following E2-treatments of isolated HPA and cultured hPASMC, we measured: 6-keto-Prostaglandin F 1α (PGI 2 stable metabolite) by ELISA, PGIS and IP protein levels by Western blot and HPA vasorelaxations with an organ bath system., Results: Incubation with E2 (24/48 h, doses ≥ 10 nM) significantly increased the expression of PGIS in hPASMC derived from both PH (65-98%) and non-PH (21-33%) patients, whereas incubation with E2 (2 h, 0.1 and 1 µM) increased 6-keto-PGF 1α production in HPA from Group-3 PH patients only, and did not affect 6-keto-PGF 1α production in hPASMC from either non-PH or Group-3 PH patients. Increases in IP receptor expression were observed following 10 mM E2-treatment of hPASMC from non-PH (33% after 48 h) and Group-3 PH (23% after 24 h) patient lungs. Finally, preincubation with 100 nM E2 significantly increased arachidonic acid-induced vasorelaxation of HPA from non-PH patient lungs but not of HPA from Group-3 PH patient lungs., Conclusion: E2-treatment may help to restore the PGI 2 -pathway in Group-3 PH., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Prostaglandins are derived from arachidonic acid metabolism through cyclooxygenase activities. Among prostaglandins (PGs), prostacyclin (PGI 2 ) and PGE 2 are strongly involved in the regulation of homeostasis and main physiologic functions. In addition, the synthesis of these two prostaglandins is significantly increased during inflammation. PGI 2 and PGE 2 exert their biologic actions by binding to their respective receptors, namely prostacyclin receptor (IP) and prostaglandin E 2 receptor (EP) 1-4, which belong to the family of G-protein-coupled receptors. IP and EP1-4 receptors are widely distributed in the body and thus play various physiologic and pathophysiologic roles. In this review, we discuss the recent advances in studies using pharmacological approaches, genetically modified animals, and genome-wide association studies regarding the roles of IP and EP1-4 receptors in the immune, cardiovascular, nervous, gastrointestinal, respiratory, genitourinary, and musculoskeletal systems. In particular, we highlight similarities and differences between human and rodents in terms of the specific roles of IP and EP1-4 receptors and their downstream signaling pathways, functions, and activities for each biologic system. We also highlight the potential novel therapeutic benefit of targeting IP and EP1-4 receptors in several diseases based on the scientific advances, animal models, and human studies. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: In this review, we present an update of the pathophysiologic role of the prostacyclin receptor, prostaglandin E 2 receptor (EP) 1, EP2, EP3, and EP4 receptors when activated by the two main prostaglandins, namely prostacyclin and prostaglandin E 2 , produced during inflammatory conditions in human and rodents. In addition, this comparison of the published results in each tissue and/or pathology should facilitate the choice of the most appropriate model for the future studies., (Copyright © 2020 The Author(s).)

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a progressive and life-threating lung disorder characterized by elevated pulmonary artery pressure and vascular remodeling. PH is classified into five groups, and one of the most common and lethal forms, PH Group-III is defined as PH due to lung diseases and/or hypoxia. Due to the lack of studies in this group, PH-specific drug therapies including prostacyclin (PGI 2 ) analogues have not been approved or recommended for use in these patients. PGI 2 is synthesized by the PGI 2 synthase (PGIS) enzyme, and its production is determined by measuring its stable metabolite, 6-keto-PGF 1α . An impaired PGI 2 pathway has been observed in PH animal models and in PH Group-I patients; however, there are contradictory results. The aim of this study is to determine whether PH Group-III is associated with altered expression of PGIS and production of PGI 2 in humans. To explore this hypothesis, we measured PGIS expression (by western blot) and PGI 2 production (by ELISA) in a large variety of preparations from the pulmonary circulation including human pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein, distal lung tissue, pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (hPASMC), and bronchi in PH Group-III (n = 35) and control patients (n = 32). Our results showed decreased PGIS expression and/or 6-keto-PGF 1α levels in human pulmonary artery, hPASMC, and distal lung tissue derived from PH Group-III patients. Moreover, the production of 6-keto-PGF 1α from hPASMC positively correlated with PGIS expression and was inversely correlated with mean pulmonary artery pressure. On the other hand, PH Group-III pulmonary veins and bronchi did not show altered PGI 2 production compared to controls. The deficit in PGIS expression and/or PGI 2 production observed in pulmonary artery and distal lung tissue in PH Group-III patients may have important implications in the pathogenesis and treatment of PH Group-III., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is characterized by an elevation of mean pulmonary artery pressure and it is classified into five groups. Among these groups, PH Group-III is defined as PH due to lung disease or hypoxia. Prostacyclin (PGI 2 ) analogues (iloprost, treprostinil) and endothelin-1 (ET-1) receptor antagonists (ERA) (used alone or in combination) are therapies used for treating PH. The mechanisms underlying the positive/negative effects of combination treatment are not well documented, and in this study, we tested the hypothesis that the combination of a PGI 2 analogue (iloprost, treprostinil) and an ERA may be more effective than either drug alone to treat vasculopathies observed in PH Group-III patients. Using Western blotting, ET A and ET B receptor expression were determined in human pulmonary artery (HPA) preparations derived from control and PH Group-III patients, and the physiologic impact of altered expression ratios was assessed by measuring ET-1 induced contraction of ex vivo HPA and human pulmonary veins (HPV) in an isolated organ bath system. In addition, the effects of single agent or combination treatments with a PGI 2 analogue and an ERA on ET-1 release and HPA smooth muscle cells (hPASMCs) proliferation were determined by ELISA and MTT techniques, respectively. Our results indicate that the increased ET A /ET B receptor expression ratio in HPA derived from PH Group-III patients is primarily governed by a greatly depressed ET B receptor expression. However, contractions induced by ET-1 are not impacted in HPA and HPV derived from PH Group-III patients as compared to controls. Also, we found that the combination of an ET A receptor antagonist (BQ123) with iloprost provides greater inhibition of hPASMCs proliferation (-48±14% control; -32±06% PH) than either agent alone. Of note, while the ET B receptor antagonist (BQ788) increases ET-1 production from PH Group-III patients' preparations (HPA, parenchyma), even under these more proliferative conditions, iloprost and treprostinil are still effective to inhibit hPASMCs proliferation (-22/-24%). Our findings may provide new insights for the treatment of PH Group-III by combining a PGI 2 analogue and a selective ET A receptor antagonist., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) induction in human internal mammary arteries (IMA) under inflammatory conditions has been associated with attenuated norepinephrine (NE)-induced vasoconstriction. This effect was associated with increased prostaglandin (PG) E 2 and prostacyclin (PGI 2 ) releases. The present study was designed to assess the role of these PG and their receptors (EP and IP, respectively) on the vascular reactivity during acute inflammation. Isolated IMA were cultured in the absence (Control conditions) or presence (Inflammatory conditions) of both interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The vasorelaxation and the increased content of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) induced by iloprost, a PGI 2 analogue, were significantly reduced under inflammatory conditions and restored in preparations cultured with the IP antagonist (CAY10441). Decreased cAMP levels under inflammatory conditions are due to at least increased phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4B expression. On the other hand, PGE 2 , thromboxane analogues and EP agonists-induced vasoconstrictions were not affected under inflammatory conditions. No vasorelaxation was observed with PGD 2 , PGE 2 or the EP2/4 agonists in pre-contracted IMA. Finally, using RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry, the COX-2, IP receptor and PGI 2 synthase (PGIS) were detected. A significant increase of COX-2 and moderate increase of IP mRNA expression was observed under inflammatory conditions, whereas PGIS mRNA level was not affected. This study demonstrates that PGI 2 /IP receptor signalling and PGI 2 -induced relaxation are impaired in human IMA during acute inflammation, whereas the responses induced by other prostanoids are not affected. These results could explain some of the mechanisms of vascular dysfunction reported in inflammatory conditions., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a mediator with demonstrated protective effects for the cardiovascular system. On the other hand, prostaglandin (PG)E2 is involved in vascular wall remodeling by regulating matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activities. We tested the hypothesis that endogenous H2S may modulate PGE2, MMP-1 activity and endogenous tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMP-1/-2). This regulatory pathway could be involved in thinning of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) and thickening of saphenous vein (SV) varicosities. The expression of the enzyme responsible for H2S synthesis, cystathionine-γ-lyase (CSE) and its activity, were significantly higher in varicose vein as compared to SV. On the contrary, the endogenous H2S level and CSE expression were lower in AAA as compared to healthy aorta (HA). Endogenous H2S was responsible for inhibition of PGE2 synthesis mostly in varicose veins and HA. A similar effect was observed with exogenous H2S and consequently decreasing active MMP-1/TIMP ratios in SV and varicose veins. In contrast, in AAA, higher levels of PGE2 and active MMP-1/TIMP ratios were found versus HA. These findings suggest that differences in H2S content in AAA and varicose veins modulate endogenous PGE2 production and consequently the MMP/TIMP ratio. This mechanism may be crucial in vascular wall remodeling observed in different vascular pathologies (aneurysm, varicosities, atherosclerosis and pulmonary hypertension).