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Many field studies on primates have recently been carried out in which quantitative data have been collected using instantaneous scan sampling techniques. However, data collected in this manner are difficult to analyze statistically because of the problem of independence of samples, and a number of investigators have analyzed such data incorrectly. In this paper, we evaluate such analyses and suggest alternative techniques that may be more appropriate. Examples are drawn from data on daily activity cycles of Lemur catta and Lemur fulvus.

Traditional methods of bone analysis (both metric and topographic) are restricted to external characters. Special distribution of material is, however, equally critical to an understanding of a bone's function. Dynamic testing to determine whole bone strength can only be performed on fresh specimens. Methods for the calculation of both bending and torsional strength of other specimens (such as preserved or fossil bones) are developed in this paper. In order to illustrate the methods, the functional significance of tibial shaft cross sectional variation is investigated.

Determination of sex from the tibial shaft as well as the entire bone itself has not been generally investigated by osteologists . This paper is an attempt to fulfill this need. The purpose is to determine sex from both the complete tibia and the shaft at the nutrient foramen level. The sample was obtained from the Terry Collection and included 159 specimens of whites and blacks. The tibial length, and circumference, anteroposterior, and transverse measurements at the nutrient foramen level were analyzed by means of step-wise discriminant function analysis. It was found that the circumference alone could give, on the average, 80% accuracy in determining sex. The addition of other dimensions to the function increased the accuracy by about 4%. Comparisons of this study with those on the femur indicated that sexual dimorphism in the tibia was a result not only of the general growth and musculo-skeletal activity, but also of the genetic structure of the population, i.e., racial variation.

It has previously been suggested that residential practices can be inferred from within- or between-group analysis of male and female skeletal morphology. Arguments have proceeded from intuitively derived hypotheses about the genetic consequences of drift and migration. In this paper, a formal basis is presented for these hypotheses using modified versions of Wright's island model and the migration matrix method. It is shown that the usual measures of standardized genetic variance or genetic kinship can be decomposed into male, female, and male/female components. The male and female components can in turn be used separately to assess the effect of different residential practices on the population genetic structure of the two sexes. Following upon these models, nonmetric cranial trait data from prehistoric sites in west-central Illinois are used to delineate the probable residential practices for this region.

From the papers in this symposium, an attempt is made to establish the scope and aim of genetic epidemiology. Specifically, its objective is seen as the elucidation of the role of genetic factors in the etiology of a disease whose distribution is related to individual genetic constitution and population genetic structure. A study of multiple sclerosis in the Orkney Islands provides an example.

Some previous primate studies have found a positive correlation between male dominance and mating success when data from subadult males were included in the analyses. The information in this paper suggests that an unconscious bias may have been introduced when data on subadult males were included because of the lower dominance rank of these animals. Data from a study of rhesus monkeys on Cayo Santiago showed that subadult males mated significantly less than adults. Because these monkeys are not fully mature, data on them should not be used in any test for correlation between adult male dominance and mating success. The only significant correlation found for adult male mating success was an inverse one with relation to age. Based on behavioral data young, fully adult males have the best chance of fathering offspring regardless of their dominance rank.

Using the larynges of the newborn human and chimpanzee as models, Lieberman and Crelin ('71) and Lieberman, Crelin and Klatt ('72) have reconstructed the larynx of the "classic" Neanderthal La Chapelle aux Saints. The authors used their reconstructed vocal tract to generate linguistic functions which led them to conclude that Neanderthal lacked the ability to produce fully articulate human speech. In this paper, it is shown that their reconstruction of the larynx of Neanderthal is based on a placement of the hyoid bone of La Chapelle which is too high. The reconstructed hyoid bone of La Chalpelle which is too high. The reconstructed hyoid bone has been placed in a position unlike that occupied by hyoid bones of newborn humans, adult humans, stillborn chimpanzees or adult chimpanzees. In any laryngeal reconstruction, the function of swallowing must be taken into account. The ability of the reconstructed Neanderthal to swallow is discussed in light of a comparative analysis of swallowing in man and the chimpanzee. It is concluded that the statement that Neanderthal was less than fully articulate remains unsubstantiated because it rests on a questionable reconstruction of the larynx.

The deflecting wrinkle is a well-known character state of the lower m2 and M1 of the human dentition, but there is little information regarding its presence in great apes. The deflecting wrinkle is more frequent on M2-3 in all extant pongid genera studied in this paper except Pan paniscus, in which M1 has the highest frequency (16.0%) and in which this wrinkle is absent on M3. In Gorilla, it is absent on M1, with only a low incidence on M2-3. Its greatest frequency in Pongo is always on M2 (20.2%), which is the greatest expression of the trait in the great apes. We interpret the presence of the deflecting wrinkle as an incidental effect and suggest that it represents a plesiomorphic character state in the Hominoidea.

Tamarins are small New World monkeys that have been described as "squirrellike." Squirrels, along with bats and birds, are the taxa most likely to utilize resources similar to those used by primates in the tropical forest canopy. In this paper we compare differences in ecology, diet, locomotion, and habitat utilization between sympatric populations of tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) and tree squirrels (Sciurus granatensis) in Panama. Data presented indicate that although there is some degree of resource overlap, patterns of habitat utilization differ significantly. Rather than being "squirrellike," the Panamanian tamarin exhibits a pattern of locomotor and feeding behavior consistent with that found in other arboreal primates.

An examination of the surface morphology of the juvenile Neandertal calvaria, Engis 2, has resulted in the discovery of several series of incised striations. The purpose of this paper is to describe and discuss these striations. A preliminary interpretation of at least some of the striations as cutmarks, made at or near the time of the child's death, is offered.

Many papers have been devoted to the assumption of equality of variance-covariance matrices (sigma g) with respect to the use of discriminant analysis. Most of them concentrate on the "effect" of inequality on the results, in particular on discriminant functions. In the present paper, the assumption of equality of covariances itself was investigated for measures on human skulls. Data for both sexes were compared, as well as data on several racial groups. A likelihood ratio test was used. It was concluded that the equality of sigma g between the sexes and among subraces was not questioned, whereas the results warrant some caution as to the equality of sigma g among the main racial groups.

A group of Taiwan aborigines, the Toroko, was typed for 21 classical genetic loci. This is part of an ongoing program aimed at a comprehensive study of Taiwan aborigines. In this first paper a short summary of historical, archeological, and anthropological data in the literature is made, and results of the present survey are compared with older results from other aborigine tribes. An analysis of other neighboring populations from southeast Asia has also been carried out in order to give a preliminary answer to the question of origin of Taiwanese aborigines. Fifteen populations were studied for 13 loci by tree analysis, principal components, and isolation by distance. Tree analysis and principal component analysis gave results in fairly good agreement and indicate three major population clusters: a northeast cluster (Ainu, Korea, Japan, and Ryukyu); a southeast cluster (south China, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, Taiwan, and Toroko); and a third cluster including Malaya and Borneo. The positions of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia are somewhat peripheral. Analysis of the tree shows some potential cases of convergence, perhaps owing to admixture, and of divergence. The analysis of isolation by distance shows that geographic propinquity is a reasonably good predictor of general similarity in this area.

Considerable publicity has been given a recent article by Lieberman and Crelin ('71) which argues that Neanderthal man lacked the physical features necessary for speech. This present paper presents statistics on some modern men with normal speech who show physical features in common with Neanderthal man. The brain of Neanderthal man was as large as, or larger than, that of modern man. The brain reflected by endocranial cast of the La Chapelle-aux-Saints skull resembles that of modern man in an area important for speech and therapy suggests Neanderthal man had the neural development necessary for language.

In a recent paper Schwartz ('74) proposes revised homologies of the deciduous and permanent teeth in living lemuriform primates of the family Indriidae. However, new evidence provided by the deciduous dentition of Avahi suggests that the traditional interpretations are correct, specifically: (1) the lateral teeth in the dental scraper of Indriidae are homologous with the incisors of Lemuriadae and Lorisidae, not the canines; (2) the dental formula for the lower deciduous teeth of indriids is 2.1.3; (3) the dental formula for the lower permanent teeth of indriids is 2.0.2.3; and (4) decrease in number of incisors during primate evolution was usually in the sequence I3, then I2, then I1. It appears that dental reduction during primate evolution occurred at the ends of integrated incisor and cheek tooth units to minimize disruption of their functional integrity.

This paper describes tuberculosislike lesions affecting the spine of Neolithic skeleton found in Arene Candide cave (Liguria, Italy) and representing one of the earliest cases of this disease in Europe. The burial is attributed to middle Neolithic (square-mouthed pottery culture) whose layers date, by 14C, to the first half of the fourth millennium BC. The skeleton, well preserved in the postcranial portion, belongs to a male aged about 15 years having a very light body build. Resorptive lesions localized to the lower thoracic and upper lumbar vertebral bodies, collapse and angular kyphosis, resulting from complete destruction of T11 and T12 and partial destruction of T10 and L1, are the main pathologic features. The morphology of the lesions, sites involved, and age of the specimen are consistent with a diagnosis of tuberculous spondylitis (Pott's disease). The extreme gracility of the skeleton, along with other signs of stress (Harris lines, enamel hypoplasia) suffered during the last years of life, and the limited bony regeneration point to a disease process in its late phase having arisen at the beginning of adolescence. The funerary ritual suggests that the social integration of this adolescent was not prevented by the severe infirmity.

This paper reports the physical growth and body composition from the first year of longitudinal study of 519 Guatemalan children, and their families, from a disadvantaged urban community consisting largely of refugees of the 1976 earthquake. Four cohorts are described, composed of children of 1,3,5, and 7 years at examination. The children are smaller, weigh less, and have reduced fat stores compared either to NCHS reference data or to upper SES Guatemalan children. Stature (or length) and head circumference deviate more from reference data than do triceps or upper arm muscle circumference. Greater deviations are found in the linear dimensions of males than of females. These children are the smallest yet described from Guatemala City, though they are slightly larger than available rural samples. This suggests a continuum of environmental effects acting upon the growth of children of differing socioeconomic levels.

The Ra's al-Hamra prehistoric fishermen lived in isolation on the Qurum rocky promontorium in Oman during the 5th-4th millennia BC. To date, they represent the most ancient and numerous human fossil group excavated from the Arabian peninsula. Like other contemporaneous archaeologically documented small communities along the desert Arabian coasts, they intensively exploited ocean resources and collected molluscs from nearby mangrove swamps. The present study analyzes aspects of dental anthropology (including crown variation, morphology, dental wear, and oral health), in 600 permanent teeth from 49 individuals of both sexes excavated at the Mesolithic RH5-site by the Italian Archaeological Mission in Oman from 1981 to 1985. In association with a general low degree of morphometric variation, the Ra's al-Hamra dental crowns show low sexual dimorphism and are consistently reduced in size. These features are unexpected in a preagricultural population, especially when these data are compared to other eastern African and near Middle Eastern prehistoric populations. These data are discussed within the general context of human dental structural reduction occurring during the post-Pleistocene and are interpreted according to the "increasing population density effect" model. There are other significant differences that characterize the Ra's al-Hamra dentitions with respect to both eastern and western prehistoric human groups. The frequency of numerous nonmetric crown traits supports the hypothesis that a microdifferentiation phenomenon occurred in this marginal area. The preliminary skeletal analysis and the palaeodemographic profile show that the Omani prehistoric fishermen were affected by genetic isolation and inbreeding as well as strong environmental stress. Because of the grit assimilated with dried fish and the high shellfish consumption, dental wear was extreme in all age groups at Ra's al-Hamra and occasionally was responsible for serious hematogenously spread infections. In spite of the great anthropological importance of ancient Arabian populations, very few studies on skeletal and dental samples have been completed. The present paper offers an odontological data set for future comparative research in the area.

Sole dermatoglyphics of the aborigines of Northwestern Siberia, Taimir, and Kamchatka are presented in this paper. The distance coefficients based on various combinations of dermatoglyphic traits depending on their heritability were estimated. These were compared with the overall dermatoglyphic distance coefficients as well as with the genetic (dermatoglyphic) distance coefficients based on six blood groups (ABO, MNSs, P, Fy, Jk, Kp). Genetic interpretation of the distances was attempted in connection with analysis of differences or similarities between these populations.

A detailed investigation of worn teeth should reveal a record of past activity patterns including information regarding diet, food preparation methods, and craft or occupational activities. Anthropological studies of the extensive dental samples from Neolithic (MR 3) and Chalcolithic (MR 2) levels at Mehrgarh, Baluchistan, and Bronze Age Harappa, Punjab, yielded several interesting examples of unusual dental abrasion. This paper provides macro- and microscopic (scanning electron microscope) descriptions of three types of activity-induced dental abrasion: 1) interproximal tooth grooving and interproximal abrasion patches, 2) facial abrasion of maxillary anterior teeth, and 3) lingual abrasion of maxillary incisors in association with rounded wear of lower incisors. The gross size and shape of abrasion features, the orientation of microscopic wear striae, and ethnographic parallels are employed in inferring causal factors involved in their formation. Behavioral activities and dietary explanations possibly associated with each type of dental wear are considered and their implications for reconstructing prehistoric activity patterns discussed. The need for extensive ethno-anthropology research into variations of tooth use among living people with different diets, subsistence bases, and craft specializations is essential to further progress in this field.

There has long been controversy concerning the relative importance of environment and ancestry in determining the characteristics of living creatures including members of the human species. At the beginning of the present century most biologists and anthropologists seem to have assumed that environment had little or no effect upon our bodily traits. We inherited them. The studies of Franz Boas on Changes in bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants cast doubts upon this assumption, and provoked considerable resentment. Since 1911, however, quite a few scholars have confirmed and elaborated upon the findings of Boas. At the same time, many other studies have demonstrated secular changes in bodily size and shape within quite a few different populations. The idea of bodily plasticity has therefore, by this decade, become quite acceptable. This paper recounts the historical sequence of events leading to the change in anthropological assumptions, mentioning the scholars whose work contributed to this important advance in scientific understanding.

From the individual-based records of hunting practice for 1,633 hr in total and from the hunters' visual acuity and grip strength observed among the Gidra Papuans in lowland Papua New Guinea, this paper aims to analyze the relationship between the hunting activity and aging. The sensori-motor functions determine the range of age in which the individuals act as active or productive hunters: determined to be from the late teen-age years to about 45 years among the present subjects. In this age range, hunting efficiency increases with age. In terms of weight of animals killed per hunting time, the efficiency of the elder married (aged about 35 to 45 years) was almost four times higher than that of the unmarried (16-17 to late 20s). This aging effect is judged to depend on behavioral abilities that increase in accordance with experience and cumulative knowledge. Simultaneously, the comparison of individual hunters' records in 1971-72 and in 1981 reveals that hunting efficiency is associated with the individualities of the hunters.

The phenotypic structure of human populations is shaped by a number of factors such as population size and marital migration. This paper examines the impact of migration on the between-village phenotypic differentiation of the Jirels, a tribal group of eastern Nepal. Data on stature and five cranial measurements for 526 individuals (males and females) are utilized to illustrate the patterns of phenotypic variation. A permutation method is used to generate the phenotypic consequences of random migration constrained to observed levels of movement. The results suggest that Jirel migration is nonrandom and that it produces higher levels of phenotypic differentiation than would result from a random migration process.

Cranial surgery has been performed for thousands of years among a wide range of cultures. Although the extent of its use has varied, ethnographically the operation has almost always been used as a form of medical treatment following cranial trauma or as a remedy for head pain. This paper describes two cases of cranial trauma on Australian Aboriginal remains from widely separated areas of the continent. The position and morphology of the trauma, as well as other associated features, suggest that these individuals underwent some form of surgical procedure. The features are similar to those found on accepted cases of trephination from elsewhere. If these individuals did undergo some sort of trephination, they are the first to be reported from Australia. Confirmation of the diagnosis would also increase our understanding of the geographical range of the technique in this part of Oceania, which was known previously only from parts of Melanesia.

The distribution of the DBP (vitamin D binding protein) polymorphism is now well characterized among human populations but for primates only limited results are known. The aim of this paper is to describe the electrophoretic polymorphism of this protein among various species. Using three different electrophoretic methods, we are able to detect an unknown polymorphism and to classify the different alleles observed. These results may be used to set an international nomenclature for further comparisons. The different electrophoretic mobilities between Old and New World Monkeys show that: 1) the Cercopithecoïdea are presenting the largest genetic heterogeneity; 2) the DBP among the Galago corresponds to the lowest isoelectric points observed among Primates; 3) during the evolution from nonhuman Primates to Man, the DBP is able to keep its affinity for vitamin D derivatives despite the occurrence of significant molecular modifications; 4) among Anthropoïdea, the electrophoretic patterns of DBP are very close to the human Gc1 proteins. These results show that evolution at the DBP level can be considered as a continuous mechanism of structural modifications. A significant transition occurs during the differentiation between Cercopithecoïdea and Anthropoïdea. It is not too speculative to consider that some electrophoretic forms detected among Gorilla, Pongo, or Pan may be identical to rare variants observed among humans.

This paper presents evidence for what is believed to be the first reported case of pre-Columbian treponematosis in northeastern North America. The temporal position of the skeletal material, salvaged from a site in New York State, is determined on the basis of archeological evidence.

One reason to measure cross-sectional structural properties of primate long bones is to define mechanically relevant complexes of traits that describe the adaptation of bone to different biomechanical environments. This can be effectively accomplished when congeneric species having different postural and locomotor behaviors are compared. This paper compares the cross-sectional geometry of the femur and humerus in three behaviorally different macaque species as a basis for defining such patterns. Cross-sectional moments of inertia in the standard anatomical planes were calculated at five locations along the diaphyses of the femur and humerus in Macaca fascicularis, M. nemestrina, and M. mulatta. The data suggest that the "barrel-shaped" femur is associated with behaviors for which long limbs and small body size are an asset. This may be associated with, but is not restricted to, leaping behaviors. The data also suggest that structural rigidity of the femur and humerus is greater per unit body weight in primates that spend significant amounts of time in terrestrial environments than in those that are more restricted to climbing in arboreal environments.

A review of publications over the last ten years of methods in the field of physical anthropology for determining age, sex, race and stature of human skeletal material is presented. Comparisons are made with the types of papers published in the previous ten years (1958-1968) in six categories: (1) Visual examination of bones (2) Anthropometric measurements of bones (3) Anthropometric measurements with subsequent use of statistics in the form of discriminate function analyses (4) Time and sequence of eruption of the teeth (5) X-ray examination of the internal structure of bone sections (6) Microscopic examination of the internal structure of bone.

In dermatoglyphic methodology the system of gross classification of digital pattern types needs modifications. More attention should be focussed on the study of minute morphological variations among pattern types in order to understand fully the genetic mechanisms involved in pattern variations. A systematic classification to record many of the morphological peculiarities is lacking. The paper proposes a classification and methods of identification of the direction of the course of the ridges inside the pattern area of true whorls. In all, nine ridge course types are identified, named and described. Data analysed on the basis of the above methods and classification reveal significant bilateral differences for clockwise and counter-clockwise types of ridge directions. Mode of inheritance, bisexual differences, etc., of the polymorphic course of these ridges should be studied. Its usefulness in the field of personal identification, population genetics and medicine should also be evaluated.

Recent studies of the effects of hypoxia on human growth and adult size have focused mainly on the variability of single measurements. In this paper we explore changes with altitude and ethnicity (Spanish-Aymara ancestry) in body proportions of permanent residents of an altitudinal gradient (0-4000 meters) in northern Chile. Body proportion or shape is assessed by anthropometric indices and principal components of 14 bone measurements. Ethnicity independent of altitude had its major effect on proportions and a lesser effect on size. Aymara had larger relative sitting heights, broader builds and prominent facial development as compared to non-Aymara (Spanish). Altitude also affected head and chest proportions during growth. On the whole, the effects of altitude and Aymara ancestry on the measurements and indices were independent (not necessarily of similar direction or magnitude), in spite of a correlation of ethnicity and altitude in Andean populations.

The etiology of skull lesions known as porotic hyperostosis has long been a matter for speculation. The most widely accepted theory at present suggests that an anemia, either acquired or genetic, is responsible for lesion development. However, acceptance of this theory is not universal and the nature of the relationship between orbital and vault lesions remains a controversial issue. This paper provides a much broader field of supportive evidence on which to base the anemia theory. This involves a synthesis of information from the clinical and anthropological literature as well as new data from two skeletal collections: Poundbury Camp, a Romano-British series, and the Hodgson collection, a 19th century East Asian series. A comparison is made between clinical and anthropological data at the macroscopic, microscopic, radiographic, and demographic levels of analysis. This approach reveals the similarities in expression between clinically diagnosed anemias and porotic hyperostosis.

Schooling is considered by many researchers and agencies as an important contributor to individual and national development for populations living in the less developed countries. Accordingly, programs to increase school enrollment and continuation from grade to grade are being developed for many of these countries. This paper investigates the relationship of physical growth status (height, weight, and body composition), grade in school, and age to school continuation for a sample of Indian children living in a village near Guatemala City. It was found that physical growth status, a reflection of health and nutritional status, does not predict school continuation. A child's age and current grade in school do predict continuation. Most children leave school after reaching 9 years of age or after completing the second grade. It is suggested that children may learn enough to satisfy their parents' expectations by this age or grade. Also, the child's economic value to his or her family may be a significant reason for school drop-out.

Questions concerning the relative effects of various evolutionary forces in molding the genetic variability exhibited by groups of human populations have typically been investigated by comparing a variety of genetic and cultural/historical "distance" matrices. A major methodological difficulty has been the lack of formal testing procedures with which to assess the degree of confirmation or disconfirmation of an estimated measure of relationship between such matrices. In this paper, we examine a very flexible matrix combinatorial procedure which generates statistical significance levels for correlational measures of pattern similarity between distance matrices. A recent generalization of the basic procedure to the three-matrix case allows questions concerning which of two matrices best fits a third matrix to be formally tested. Applications of these hypothesis testing and inference procedures to two separate sets of genetic, geographic, and cultural distance matrices illustrates their potential for finally solving a long-standing problem in anthropological genetics.

This study addresses the long-standing controversy in skeletal biology concerning the relative utility of skeletal metric and nonmetric traits for studies of biological relationship. This controversy centers on the relative heritability of these two trait sets. This paper presents heritabilities for a series of skeletal metric and nonmetric traits measured with the same sample of mother-offspring pairs from the Cayo Santiago skeletal collection of rhesus macaques. Skeletal nonmetric traits display significantly greater heritability estimates than metric traits. This difference is due primarily to the high heritability estimates of hyperostotic nonmetric traits. Foraminal traits are not significantly more heritable than skeletal metric traits. The generality of this pattern of heritability values, in which hyperostotic nonmetric traits are more highly heritable than foraminal nonmetric and metric traits, depends on future empirical study of the correlation of heritability values in populations and theoretical work.

Studies of population structure often focus on the effects of population size and migration rates on genetic variation. Few studies, however, have investigated the relationship between these two factors. The purpose of this paper is to determine the extent to which migration (and gene flow) is density-dependent (that is, affected by population size) for populations in historical Massachusetts. Data from 4,859 marriage records were analyzed from four populations in north-central Massachusetts during the time period 1741 to 1849. These data were placed into 29 samples defined in terms of population and time cohort. Within each cohort the overall exogamy rate was computed along with three estimates of gene flow based on marital migration: local migration (k), long-distance migration (m), and effective migration rate (me). Three samples show unusually low rates that reflect the history of settlement. Regression analyses were used with the remaining samples, and they show nonlinear density-dependent migration that is unrelated to temporal trends. Migration is highest in samples with small population sizes (less than 800) and large population sizes (greater than 1,600). Migration is lowest in medium-sized populations. Two processes are suggested to explain this curvilinear relationship of migration and population size. In small populations, the lack of suitable potential mates and/or availability of settled land leads to an increase in migration into the population. As population size increases, this migration decreases. After populations reach a certain size, migration increases again, most likely reflecting the economic pull of larger populations. These patterns could act to enhance, or counter, genetic drift, depending on the direction of density dependence.

The analysis of anthropometric data often allows investigation of patterns of genetic structure in historical populations. This paper focuses on interpopulational anthropometric variation in seven populations in Ireland using data collected in the 1890s. The seven populations were located within a 120-km range along the west coast of Ireland and include islands and mainland isolates. Two of the populations (the Aran Islands and Inishbofin) have a known history of English admixture in earlier centuries. Ten anthropometric measures (head length, breadth, and height; nose length and breadth; bizygomatic and bigonial breadth; stature; hand length; and forearm length) on 259 adult Irish males were analyzed following age adjustment. Discriminant and canonical variates analysis were used to determine the degree and pattern of among-group variation. Mahalanobis' distance measure, D2, was computed between each pair of populations and compared to distance measures based on geographic distance and English admixture (a binary measure indicating whether either of a pair of populations had historical indications of admixture). In addition, surname frequencies were used to construct distance measures based on random isonymy. Correlations were computed between distance measures, and their probabilities were derived using the Mantel matrix permutation method. English admixture has the greatest effect on anthropometric variation among these populations, followed by geographic distance. The correlation between anthropometric distance and geographic distance is not significant (r = -0.081, P = .590), but the correlation of admixture and anthropometric distance is significant (r = 0.829, P = .047). When the two admixed populations are removed from the analysis the correlation between geographic and anthropometric distance becomes significant (r = 0.718, P = .025). Isonymy distance shows a significant correlation with geographic distance (r = 0.425, P = .046) but not with admixture distance (r = -0.052, P = .524). The fact that anthropometrics show past patterns of gene flow and surnames do not reflects the greater impact of stochastic processes on surnames, along with the continued extinction of surnames. This study shows that 1) anthropometrics can be extremely useful in assessing population structure and history, 2) differential gene flow into populations can have a major impact on local genetic structure, and 3) microevolutionary processes can have different effects on biological characters and surnames.

I have identified and illustrated a spherical "dimple" or "depression" on the Taung endocast as indicating the most likely position of the medial end of the lunate sulcus but have not drawn an actual lunate sulcus on Taung because one is not visible. In a recent paper, R. L. Holloway (Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 77:27-33, 1988) drew a lunate sulcus on his copy of the Taung endocast, incorrectly attributed this sulcus to me, and used it to obtain a ratio of 0.254 to describe "Falk's" position of the lunate sulcus. My published ratio of 0.242 for Taung (Falk: Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 67:313-315, 1985a) was not considered, although the focus of Holloway's paper was my assessment of the position of the lunate sulcus. Holloway also excluded published ratios for a chimpanzee in my collection from his statistical analysis but, even so, my published ratio for Taung is still only 1.5 standard deviations from his chimpanzee mean. If my chimpanzee brain is included in the sample, the ratio for Taung is 1.2 standard deviations from the mean. Furthermore, one of Holloway's own chimpanzees (B60-7) has a ratio of 0.241, just 0.001 below my ratio for Taung. There is no sulcus where Holloway has drawn one on Taung, his "F(LS)" is not mine, his 2 mm error is not mine, and the correct ratio for my measurement of Taung is the one that I published, not the one that Holloway attributes to me. Assessment of Holloway's chimpanzee data supports my claim that the dimple on the Taung endocast is within the chimpanzee range for the medial end of the lunate sulcus.

Mexican-American children are shorter but relatively heavier than non-Hispanic whites and blacks. The objectives of this paper are to assess the extent to which this "short and plump" physique occurs in data collected in two national surveys (HANES I and II); to determine variations by age, sex, and socioeconomic status; and to investigate the anthropometric characteristics that may account for the overweight. Three groups, defined on the basis of reported ancestry and observed race, are studied: Mexican-Americans (MEXAME), non-Hispanic Whites, (EURAME), and blacks (BLACK). Short stature was clearly associated with the poverty index (PI) in all three groups. MEXAMEs with a PI greater than 1.6 were similar in stature to EURAMEs at the same income level at ages 1-11 years but not at 12-17 years. On the other hand, MEXAMEs were shorter than BLACKs at all ages and income levels. The body mass index (kg/cm2) and poverty were unrelated. With respect to the anthropometric characteristics examined that are related to the body mass index, MEXAMEs and EURAMEs were similar in sitting height as a proportion of total height, arm muscle and fat areas, and triceps skinfold but different in the following ways: MEXAMEs had narrower elbow but broader bitrochanteric breadths and larger chest circumferences and subscapular skinfolds. Greater upper body dimensions and fatfolds seem to best describe the physique of MEXAMEs. However, in multiple regressions, these anthropometric characteristics failed to account fully for the greater relative weight of MEXAMEs as compared to EURAMEs.

In a previous paper (Swedlund et al., 1984) we have described the population structure of the historical Connecticut River Valley of Massachusetts in terms of matrimonial migration matrices. Using procedures described by Morton (1973), Harpending and Jenkins (1974), Jorde (1980), and others the exchanges between subdivisions which make up the matrices are made column stochastic and analyzed to predict genetic kinship. Subsequently the kinship estimates within and between subdivisions can be interpreted as genetic covariance and compared to the actual geographic distances between the respective subdivisions using a principal components analysis. In the present paper we extend these results by applying nonmetric multidimensional scaling to the migration matrices, and to isonymy matrices based on the same communities. We demonstrate that the multidimensional scaling configurations of marital migration represent the actual geographic relationships between the communities quite effectively for this particular case study from historical Massachusetts. Moreover, we argue that while these migration data may provide good estimates of social and genetic exchange between the subdivisions, surname analysis may also be informative of processes not revealed in the migration matrices alone.

Growth and development of the cranial base have interested students of anatomical disciplines for more than a century. Flexure of the basal region has been of particular interest and is among the most assiduously studied characteristics of the skull. Reports may be found in journals serving such a diversity of professional interests that a summary of facts and the more interesting speculations on unsettled aspects of this subject should be of value. This paper is a review of the literature from Virschow's and Schaeffer's writings in the latter half of the last century to those of the most recent investigators. It includes the works of anatomists, anthropologists, embryologists and orthodontists, among others.

There are many reports in the literature relating to the dental pathology of ancient peoples. In most instances only visual observations of alveolar lesions have been made, precluding assessment of covert dental lesions. The present paper was undertaken to compare the incidence of alveolar dental lesions determined by both visual and radiographic methods in a group of Australian aboriginal skulls. First molars of the right side were used for the comparison: approximately ten percent more lesions were found by the radiographic method. The data demonstrated the limitation of either technique alone. The strong association between pulp exposure and furcal, angular, and apical lesions suggests that pulpal lesions provoke periodontal changes that have traditionally been assigned to a gingival etiology. The location of the lesions within the periodontium would appear to be determined by the location of the pulpal pathology and the pathways through dentin between that location and the periodontal ligament.

This paper presents data on the hemoglobin concentration of a sample of 103 pastoral nomads who are lifelong residents of Phala, at 4,850-5,450 m, on the northern plateau of the Tibet Autonomous Region of the Peoples' Republic of China. This native population resides at the highest altitude of which we are aware and is thus exposed to the most extreme chronic hypoxic stress. However, they do not exhibit the most pronounced physiological adaptations, i.e., hemoglobin concentrations exceeding those found in all other high-altitude populations. Adult male and female mean hemoglobin concentrations of 18.2 and 16.7 gm/dl, respectively, were found. These data, in conjunction with earlier studies of ethnic Tibetans living at 3,400 m, demonstrate a pattern of increasing hemoglobin concentration (erythrocytosis) at increasing altitude of residence in the Himalayas and Tibet. At the same time, however, the hemoglobin concentration is lower than that found among Andean highlanders. These new data raise the possibility of quantitative population differences in hematological adaptation to high altitude hypoxia.

In this paper we develop a model that examines fertility and childhood mortality patterns and their relationship to environmental variables. Interactions among environmental variables can account for different fertility patterns and different mixes of these variables can produce similar patterns of fertility. Our model attempts to quantify the idea that there is a trade-off between producing a few children likely to survive to reproductive age and producing a greater number of children with lower chances for survival. The optimum mix of these strategies depends on environmental characteristics. We use the model to make predictions about fertility and mortality patterns among two Bushmen populations of southern Africa--the Ghanzi and Ngamiland !Kung--using data collected by Harpending in 1967-1968. The results do not support explanations of the low fertilities observed among !Kung Bushmen women, in whom it is thought that fitness is maximized by limiting fertility, and show no relationship between mortality and family size in either !Kung population. Instead, the number of offspring reaching reproductive age in both populations increases as their completed family size increases. We examine the effects of sex, birth order, and paternal investment on mortality. No sex ratio differences and no differences in mortality by sex or birth order are present. Infant mortality among women who married more than once is significantly higher than among women who married once, suggesting that paternal care has a significant effect.