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Dart's 1925 announcement of Australopithecus africanus (Dart: Nature 115 [1925] 195-199) was highly controversial, partly because of an interpretation of the Taung natural endocast that rested on an erroneous identification of the lambdoid suture as the lunate sulcus. Unpublished materials from the University of Witwatersrand Archives (Dart, unpublished material) reveal that Dart reacted to the controversy by: 1) describing and illustrating the entire sulcal pattern on the Taung endocast, in contrast to just two sulcal identifications in 1925, 2) identifying a hypothetical part of the lambdoid suture and revising his description of the lunate sulcus, and 3) bolstering his argument that Taung's brain was advanced by detailing expansions in three significant cortical association areas. Four unpublished illustrations of Dart's identifications for sulci and sutures on the Taung endocast are compared here with those published by Keith (Keith: New discoveries relating to the antiquity of man (1931)), Schepers (Schepers: The endocranial casts of the South African ape-men. In: Broom R, Schepers GWH, editors. The South African fossil ape-men; the Australopithecinae [1946] p 155-272), and Falk (Falk: Am J Phys Anthropol 53 [1980] 525-539), and the thorny issue of the location of the lunate sulcus is revisited in light of new information. Archival materials reveal that Dart believed that Taung's brain was reorganized globally rather than in a mosaic manner, and that the shapes of certain cortical association areas showed that Australopithecus was closer to Pithecanthropus than to the living apes. Although a few of Dart's hitherto-unpublished sulcal identifications, including his revision for the lunate sulcus, were questionable, his claim that the Taung endocast reproduced a shape that was advanced toward a human condition in its prefrontal cortex and caudally protruded occipital lobe was correct., (Copyright 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Objectives: Current human infant urine collection methods for the field are problematic for the researcher and potentially uncomfortable for the infant. In this study, we compared two minimally invasive methods for collecting infant urine: organic cotton balls and filter paper., Materials and Methods: We first collected urine from infants using the clean catch method. We then used those samples to compare the performance of filter paper and cotton ball collection protocols. We analyzed the clean catch and cotton samples using commercial estrone-3-glucuronide (E1G) kits and tried two different extraction methods for the filter paper. Using a paired t-test (n = 10), we compared clean catch and cotton samples. We also compared effect sizes within and between methods., Results: We were unable to extract enough urine from the filter paper to successfully assay the samples for E1G. The paired t-test revealed a statistically significant difference between the clean catch and cotton methods (t = 2.63, p-value = 0.03). However, the effect size was small (5.91 μg/ml, n = 10, 95% CI = 3.80, 8.02) and similar to or larger than the difference seen between duplicate wells for clean catch and cotton values., Discussion: While this study is limited by sample size, our results indicate that filter paper is not a field-friendly method for collecting infant urine. However, we found that organic cotton balls showed similar values to the clean catch method, and we propose this method as an alternative, minimally invasive method for study of E1G in human infant urine., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Electrophoretic analysis of hemoglobin types of 409 baboons of various species, mostly from Senegal, corresponds with the findings of other authors. Baboon hemoglobin is homogeneous as a whole, but differs electrophoretically from that of other monkey species. However, a difference in the electrophoretic mobility of the nonhemoglobin fraction of Papio anubis and Papio cynocephalus suggests a possibly different amino-acid sequence. This information may be useful for the classification in doubtful cases.

Objectives: We examine the prevalence and sociodemographic risk factors of skeletal indicators of stress in forensic samples of undocumented migrants from Mexico and Central America., Materials and Methods: Cranial and dental remains of 319 migrants recovered in the Arizona and Texas borderlands were assessed for porotic hyperostosis (PH), cribra orbitalia (CO), and linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH). Logistic regression models for each condition were estimated to test for associations with biological sex, age, recovery location, and whether individuals were identified. Additional models estimated for a subsample of identified migrants included region of origin, residential context, and community indigeneity., Results: The full sample shows moderate crude prevalence of CO (9.6%) and LEH (34.1%), and a high prevalence of PH (49.6%). Significantly higher odds of PH are associated with being male (2.16 times higher), unidentified (1.89 times higher), and recovered in Arizona (3.76 times higher). Among identified migrants, we fail to find associations significant at the p < 0.05 level between skeletal stress and all sociodemographic variables except age., Discussion: The factors associated with PH may be related to influences on decisions to migrate and diversity among migrant sending regions. The skeletal evidence for early life stress is generally consistent with common public health concerns among impoverished communities in the region. The lesions themselves are viewed as embodied risk of physiological disturbance when resource access is structured by higher-level social, economic, and political forces. Forensic anthropologists would benefit from increased sensitivity to embodied structural violence among the vulnerable individuals and communities they serve., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: Size-corrected tooth crown measurements were used to estimate phenetic affinities among Homo naledi (~335-236 ka) and 11 other Plio-Pleistocene and recent species. To assess further their efficacy, and identify dental evolutionary trends, the data were then quantitatively coded for phylogenetic analyses. Results from both methods contribute additional characterization of H. naledi relative to other hominins., Materials and Methods: After division by their geometric mean, scaled mesiodistal and buccolingual dimensions were used in tooth size apportionment analysis to compare H. naledi with Australopithecus africanus, A. afarensis, Paranthropus robustus, P. boisei, H. habilis, H. ergaster, H. erectus, H. heidelbergensis, H. neanderthalensis, H. sapiens, and Pan troglodytes. These data produce equivalently scaled samples unaffected by interspecific size differences. The data were then gap-weighted for Bayesian inference., Results: Congruence in interspecific relationships is evident between methods, and with many inferred from earlier systematic studies. However, the present results place H. naledi as a sister taxon to H. habilis, based on a symplesiomorphic pattern of relative tooth size. In the preferred Bayesian phylogram, H. naledi is nested within a clade comprising all Homo species, but it shares some characteristics with australopiths and, particularly, early Homo., Discussion: Phylogenetic analyses of relative tooth size yield information about evolutionary dental trends not previously reported in H. naledi and the other hominins. Moreover, with an appropriate model these data recovered plausible evolutionary relationships. Together, the findings support recent study suggesting H. naledi originated long before the geological date of the Dinaledi Chamber, from which the specimens under study were recovered., (© 2021 The Authors. American Journal of Physical Anthropology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: Stable isotope analysis can provide crucial insight into the function and development of early state-level societies on the north coast of Peru., Materials and Methods: Multi-tissue (bone collagen, tooth enamel, hair, nail, skin, and tendon) stable isotope analyses (carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and strontium) were conducted for 13 individuals from the lower Virú Valley., Results: Non-seasonal changes in a predominantly C 4 -based terrestrial diet, with minimal inputs of marine foods were identified. One individual (Burial 5), however, had a stable isotope signature unlike any previously found on the north coast of Peru, indicating both a large contribution of C 3 -terrestrial resources to their diet and an 87 Sr/ 86 Sr value suggestive of highland residence during childhood., Discussion: This research provides the first strong stable isotope evidence of a highland individual within a coastal burial in northern Peru, new insight into the ritual killing event at Huaca Santa Clara during the late middle horizon and supporting evidence of the importance of C 4 terrestrial resources to the developing Virú polity during the early intermediate period., (© 2021 The Authors. American Journal of Physical Anthropology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: This study compares lower limb diaphyseal robusticity between Native Alaskan hunter-gatherers to reconstruct patterns of mobility and engagement with terrain., Materials and Methods: Ancestral remains included in this study date between 600 and 1800 C.E. and were divided into three regions: Coastal Bay, Far North Coastal, and Inland/Riverine. Cross-sectional properties were determined at femoral and tibial midshafts and standardized by powers of body mass and bone length., Results: Consistently elaevated areas and second moments of area were found in ancestral remains from the Far North Coastal, while the Coastal Bay remains had reduced diaphyseal robusticity. Individuals from the Inland/Riverine region were intermediate in robusticity for male femora, but similar to the Coastal Bay group for females. Sexual dimorphism was greatest in the Inland/Riverine ancestral remains and comparable between Coastal Bay and Far North Coastal regions., Conclusions: Ancestral remains from the Far North Coastal region have the greatest diaphyseal robusticity in response to intensive hunting and travel over rugged terrain. Reduced sexual dimorphism in the Far North Coastal region suggest female participation in hunting activities. Intermediate diaphyseal robusticity among Inland/Riverine males and increased sexual dimorphism reflects diverse patterns of mobility in relation to the hunting cycle between males and females. Reduced diaphyseal robusticity and sexual dimorphism among the Coastal Bay group is associated with sedentary villages established around net fishing in regions with low relief. Such findings argue against technocentric views of sedentism in hunter-gatherer lifeways and generally reflect diverse adaptive strategies and interaction with local terrain among Indigenous Late Holocene hunter-gatherers of Alaska., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

This article provides a theoretical treatment of hunter-gatherer diet and physiology. Through a synthesis of nutritional studies, informed by ethno-archaeological data, we examine the risk of protein-rich diets for human survival, and how societies circumvent "salmon starvation" in the northeastern Pacific Rim. Fundamental nutritional constraints associated with salmon storage and consumption counter long-standing assumptions about the engine of cultural evolution in the region. Excess consumption of lean meat can lead to protein poisoning, termed by early explorers "rabbit starvation." While consumption of fats and carbohydrates is widely portrayed as a pathway to "offsetting" protein thresholds, there are true limits to the amount of protein individuals can consume, and constraints are most extreme for smaller individuals, children, and pregnant/nursing mothers. While this problem is not usually perceived as associated with fish, the risk of protein poisoning limits the amount of low-fat fish that people can eat safely. Compared with smaller, mass-harvested species (e.g., eulachon), dried salmon are exceedingly lean. Under certain circumstances fattier foods (small forage fish, marine mammals, whales, and even bears) or carbohydrate-rich plants may have been preferred not just for taste but to circumvent this "dietary protein ceiling." Simply put, "salmon specialization" cannot evolve without access to complimentary caloric energy through fat-rich or carbohydrate-rich resources. By extension, the evolution of storage-based societies requires this problem be solved prior to or in tandem with-salmon intensification. Without such solutions, increased mortality and reproductive rates would have made salmon reliance unsustainable. This insight is in line with genomic research suggesting protein toxicity avoidance was a powerful evolutionary force, possibly linked to genetic adaptations among First Americans. It is also relevant to evaluating the plausibility of other purportedly "focal" economies and informs understanding of the many solutions varied global societies have engineered to overcome physiological protein limits., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Efforts to name and classify Middle Pleistocene Homo, often referred to as "Homo heidelbergensis" are hampered by confusing patterns of morphology but also by conflicting paleoanthropological ideologies that are embedded in approaches to hominin taxonomy, nomenclature, and the species concept. We deconstruct these issues to show how the field's search for a "real" species relies on strict adherence to pre-Darwinian essentialist naming rules in a post-typological world. We then examine Middle Pleistocene Homo through the framework of ethnobiology, which examines on how Indigenous societies perceive, classify, and name biological organisms. This research reminds us that across human societies, taxonomies function to (1) identify and classify organisms based on consensus pattern recognition and (2) construct a stable nomenclature for effective storage, retrieval and communication of information. Naming Middle Pleistocene Homo as a "real" species cannot be verified with the current data; and separating regional groups into distinct evolutionary lineages creates taxa that are not defined by readily perceptible or universally salient differences. Based on ethnobiological studies of this kind of patterning, referring to these hominins above the level of the species according to their generic category with modifiers (e.g., "European Middle Pleistocene Homo") is consistent with observed human capabilities for cognitive differentiation, is both necessary and sufficient given the current data, and will allow for the most clear communication across ideologies going forward., (© 2021 The Authors. American Journal of Physical Anthropology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: Convolutional neural network (CNN) is a state-of-art deep learning (DL) method with superior performance in image classification. Here, a CNN-based workflow is proposed to discriminate hominid teeth. Our hope is that this method could help confirm otherwise questionable records of Homo from Pleistocene deposits where there is a standing risk of mis-attributing molars of Pongo to Homo., Methods and Materials: A two-step workflow was designed. The first step is converting the enamel-dentine junction (EDJ) into EDJ card, that is, a two-dimensional image conversion of the three-dimensional EDJ surface. In this step, researchers must carefully orient the teeth according to the cervical plane. The second step is training the CNN learner with labeled EDJ cards. A sample consisting of 53 fossil Pongo and 53 Homo (modern human and Neanderthal) was adopted to generate EDJ cards, which were then separated into training set (n = 84) and validation set (n = 22). To assess the feasibility of this workflow, a Pongo-Homo classifier was trained from the aforementioned EDJ card set, and then the classifier was used to predict the taxonomic affinities of six samples (test set) from von Koenigswald's Chinese Apothecary collection., Results: Results show that EDJ cards in validation set are classified accurately by the CNN learner. More importantly, taxonomic predictions for six specimens in test set match well with the diagnosis results deduced from multiple lines of evidence, implying the great potential of CNN method., Discussion: This workflow paves a way for future studies using CNN to address taxonomic complexity (e.g., distinguishing Pongo and Homo teeth from the Pleistocene of Asia). Further improvements include visual interpretation and extending the applicability to moderately worn teeth., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

The human trophic level (HTL) during the Pleistocene and its degree of variability serve, explicitly or tacitly, as the basis of many explanations for human evolution, behavior, and culture. Previous attempts to reconstruct the HTL have relied heavily on an analogy with recent hunter-gatherer groups' diets. In addition to technological differences, recent findings of substantial ecological differences between the Pleistocene and the Anthropocene cast doubt regarding that analogy's validity. Surprisingly little systematic evolution-guided evidence served to reconstruct HTL. Here, we reconstruct the HTL during the Pleistocene by reviewing evidence for the impact of the HTL on the biological, ecological, and behavioral systems derived from various existing studies. We adapt a paleobiological and paleoecological approach, including evidence from human physiology and genetics, archaeology, paleontology, and zoology, and identified 25 sources of evidence in total. The evidence shows that the trophic level of the Homo lineage that most probably led to modern humans evolved from a low base to a high, carnivorous position during the Pleistocene, beginning with Homo habilis and peaking in Homo erectus. A reversal of that trend appears in the Upper Paleolithic, strengthening in the Mesolithic/Epipaleolithic and Neolithic, and culminating with the advent of agriculture. We conclude that it is possible to reach a credible reconstruction of the HTL without relying on a simple analogy with recent hunter-gatherers' diets. The memory of an adaptation to a trophic level that is embedded in modern humans' biology in the form of genetics, metabolism, and morphology is a fruitful line of investigation of past HTLs, whose potential we have only started to explore., (© 2021 American Association of Physical Anthropologists.)

Objectives: Previously developed methods in subadult body mass estimation have not been tested in populations other than European-American or African-American. This study uses a contemporary Taiwanese sample to test these methods. Through evaluating their accuracy and bias, we addressed whether the allometric relationships between body mass and skeletal traits commonly used in subadult body mass estimation are conserved among different populations., Materials and Methods: Computed tomography scans of lower limbs from individuals aged 0-17 years old of both sexes were collected from National Taiwan University Hospital along with documented body weight. Polar second moment of area, distal femoral metaphyseal breadth, and maximum superior/inferior femoral head diameter were collected either directly from the scans or from reconstructed 3D models. Estimated body mass was compared with documented body mass to assess the performance of the equations., Results: Current methods provided good body mass estimates in Taiwanese individuals, with accuracy and bias similar to those reported in other validation studies. A tendency for increasing error with increasing age was observed for all methods. Reduced major axis regression showed the allometric relationships between different skeletal traits and body mass across different age categories can all be summarized using a common fitted line. A revised, maximum likelihood-based approach was proposed for all skeletal traits., Discussion: The results suggested that the allometric relationships between body mass and different skeletal traits are largely conserved among populations. The revised method provided improved applicability with strong underlying theoretical justifications, and potential for future improvements., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: In this study, we describe a newly excavated early Holocene human cranium from Guizhou, Southwestern China, namely the Zhaoguo M1 (ZG 1). We aim to evaluate its morphological resemblance with Late Pleistocene human, and Northern and Southern China Neolithic populations. We also aim to infer its position in the process of East Asian population regionalization., Materials and Methods: The ZG 1 skull is almost complete, only missing parts of the right parietal and the basicranium around the foramen magnum. Comparative samples include Late Pleistocene humans and Neolithic populations from Northern and Southern China. Univariate and multivariate analyses are carried out in the study., Results: ZG 1 has a dolichocephalic cranium, wide zygomatic breadth, moderate glabella and supraobtial projection, marked canine fossa, and thin cranial vault. The nasal floor, maximum cranial breadth position, and frontal arc proportion are all congruent with modern human. Statistical analysis suggests that ZG 1's measurements are most similar to those of Southern China Neolithic specimens, with some closer to Late Pleistocene humans., Conclusion: ZG 1 shows a clear affinity with Southern China Neolithic populations, providing further support that regionalization of morphological variability patterns between Northern and Southern Neolithic populations could have originated at least 10,000 years ago., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: Thousands of migrants have died along the United States/Mexico border and many remain unidentified. The purpose of this research is to test whether estimations of population affinity, derived from craniometric data, can facilitate identification of migrant remains and provide a geographic region of origin rather than the broad label Hispanic. The appropriateness of current forensic reference data will also be assessed., Methods: A case study combined with craniometric data from positively identified and unidentified migrants from the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (n = 489) in Arizona and operation identification (n = 201) in Texas were compared to skeletal data representing Guatemalan (n = 87) and Mexican (n = 65) Mayans. Biological distance and discriminant function analyses were used to assess overall population relationships and classificatory models for forensic anthropological application., Results: The majority of evidence indicates that estimations of population affinity can assist in the facilitation identification of migrant remains, even when a broad classification is used. Biological distances among the groups suggest that positively identified Guatemalan and Mexican migrants are similar to one another but differ from Guatemalan and Mexican Mayans., Conclusions: Population affinity estimations can aid migrant identification, and current reference data used in forensic anthropological practice should be replaced with data from positive identifications. Estimates of geographic origin may be more useful than the broad generic term Hispanic for narrowing down the search for a missing person, but more data and research is needed to achieve this goal. Although, the utility of geographic origin estimates relies on transnational data centralization and sharing, which is not always the case., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Human biological variation has historically been studied through the lens of racialization. Despite a general shift away from the use of overt racial terminologies, the underlying racialized frameworks used to describe and understand human variation still remain. Even in relatively recent anthropological and biomedical work, we can observe clear manifestations of such racial thinking. This paper shows how classification and valuation are two specific processes which facilitate racialization and hinder attempts to move beyond such frameworks. The bias induced by classification distorts descriptions of phenotypic variation in a way that erroneously portrays European populations as more variable than others. Implicit valuation occurs in tandem with classification and produces narratives of superiority/inferiority for certain phenotypic variants without an objective biological basis. The bias of racialization is a persistent impediment stemming from the inheritance of scientific knowledge developed under explicitly racial paradigms. It is also an internalized cognitive distortion cultivated through socialization in a world where racialization is inescapable. Though undeniably challenging, this does not present an insurmountable barrier, and this bias can be mitigated through the critical evaluation of past work, the active inclusion of marginalized perspectives, and the direct confrontation of institutional structures enforcing racialized paradigms., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: We provide the first comparative description of the Guercy 1 cranium and isolated cranial fragments from Baume Moula-Guercy and examine their affinities to European Preneanderthals, Neanderthals, and Homo sapiens., Materials and Methods: The Moula-Guercy hominins derive from deposits chronostratigraphically and biostratigraphically dated to the Eemian Interglacial (MIS 5e). For comparisons we compiled a sample of European and Southwest Asian subadult-adult Middle-to-Late Pleistocene hominins (≈MIS 14-MIS 2; N = 184). This sample represents a Preneanderthal-Neanderthal group and a H. sapiens group, both of which were further divided into three time-successive subgroups defined by associated marine isotope stages (MIS). Metric and morphological observations were made on the original fossils and a virtual reconstruction of Guercy 1. Developmental age and sex and the minimum-maximum number of individuals were assessed., Results: Guercy 1 represents the remains of a late stage adolescent (≈15-16.0 years) female. Morphological and metric data combine to associate the total morphological pattern expressed in Guercy 1 with our MIS 7-MIS 5e ("Early Neanderthal") subgroup. Some features, especially those related to the frontal, suggest linkage to a paleodeme comprising the Moula-Guercy, Artenac, La Chaise Abri Suard and, possibly, the Biache-Saint-Vaast samples., Discussion: Remains of MIS 7-MIS 5e Neanderthals are rare and fragmentary, especially those dated to the Last Interglacial. The Baume Moula-Guercy sample provides new insights into the total morphological pattern expressed in MIS 5e Neanderthals. Further, our results support earlier suggestions that MIS 7-MIS 5e European hominins represent a morphotype that is distinct from both earlier and later members of the Preneanderthal-Neanderthal group., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: In 2013, the burials of 36 individuals of putative African ancestry were discovered during renovation of the Gaillard Center in downtown Charleston, South Carolina. The Charleston community facilitated a bioarchaeological and mitogenomic study to gain insights into the lives of these unknown persons, referred to as the Anson Street Ancestors, including their ancestry, health, and lived experiences in the 18th century., Methods: Metric and morphological assessments of skeletal and dental characteristics were recorded, and enamel and cortical bone strontium stable isotope values generated. Whole mitochondrial genomes were sequenced and analyzed., Results: Osteological analysis identified adults, both females and males, and subadults at the site, and estimated African ancestry for most individuals. Skeletal trauma and pathology were infrequent, but many individuals exhibited dental decay and abscesses. Strontium isotope data suggested these individuals mostly originated in Charleston or sub-Saharan Africa, with many being long-term residents of Charleston. Nearly all had mitochondrial lineages belonging to African haplogroups (L0-L3, H1cb1a), with two individuals sharing the same L3e2a haplotype, while one had a Native American A2 mtDNA., Discussion: This study generated detailed osteobiographies of the Anson Street Ancestors, who were likely of enslaved status. Our results indicate that the Ancestors have diverse maternal African ancestries and are largely unrelated, with most being born locally. These details reveal the demographic impact of the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Our analysis further illuminates the lived experiences of individuals buried at Anson Street, and expands our understanding of 18th century African history in Charleston., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: Cranial vault modification (CVM), the intentional reshaping of the head, indicated group affiliation in prehistoric Andean South America. This study aims to analyze CVM data from the Cuzco region of Peru to illuminate patterns of early migration and settlement along with the later impact of the Inca Empire (AD 1438-1532) on the ethnic landscape., Materials and Methods: 419 individuals from 10 archaeological sites spanning over 2300 years were assessed for CVM using morphological analysis., Results: CVM patterns show distinct temporal attributes: the tabular type of modification appeared first and dominated the early sample (900 BC-AD 600), followed by an influx of unmodified crania during the Middle Horizon (AD 600-1000). The annular type appeared later during the Late Intermediate Period (AD 1000-1438). In the subsequent period of Inca imperialism, modification rates were higher at sites in the Cuzco countryside than in Cuzco city sites., Discussion: The study results, combined with archaeological and ethnohistoric data, reveal the sociopolitical transformations that occurred prior to and during the rise of the Inca Empire. The influx of unmodified crania during the Middle Horizon resulted at least partly from Wari occupation, while the appearance of the annular type during the LIP points to migration into the area, possibly from the Lake Titicaca region. In the Inca Imperial Period, Inca individuals at Cuzco city sites refrained from modification as a sign of their ethnic identity, while modification patterns in the Cuzco countryside likely reflect state-coerced resettlement of different ethnic groups., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Intersectionality, the theory named by Kimberlé Crenshaw, outlines how multiple elements of an individual's social identity overlap to create and preserve societal inequalities and discrimination. Recently bioarchaeology's engagement with intersectionality has become increasingly explicit, as the field recognizes the lived experience of multiple axes of an individual's identity. Evidence of trauma can remain observable in an individual's skeleton for years, making it an ideal subject of study for intersectional analyses in bioarchaeology. Using contrasting case studies of two individuals who died in hospitals and were unclaimed after death, we explore the theoretical and methodological application of intersectionality to investigations of accidental and interpersonal trauma. Differences in identities and structural inequalities affect bone quality and health outcomes. As we demonstrate, a broken bone is the intersecting result of biological, histomorphological, sociocultural, and behavioral factors. This approach allows for a better acknowledgement of the inherent complexity of past lives, elevating and amplifying previously silenced voices. In this way, intersectionality in bioarchaeology demands social justice., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: The Willwood Formation of the southern Bighorn Basin, Wyoming is a fluvial rock sequence that spans approximately 3 million years of early Eocene time. It has yielded one the largest collections of fossil mammals in the world including thousands of dentitions of extinct lemur-like primates known as notharctines. In the southern Bighorn Basin, specimens of these primates have been collected on numerous paleontological expeditions and the stratigraphic levels yielding the dentitions have been carefully recorded. Notharctine dentitions represent a rare opportunity to study morphological variation in a single anatomical system through time among closely related individuals., Materials and Methods: Prior studies of Bighorn Basin notharctines through time produced measurements of hundreds of specimens but I report here results from measurement and comparison of the dentitions and dentaries of more than 3,000 specimens, all stratigraphically mapped., Results: Variation in premolar and molar area and variation in dentary depth are apparent throughout the section. Specimens with relatively small teeth and dentaries are known from the older part of the section. In younger rocks, variation in tooth area among specimens increases. Variation in tooth area is continuous and overlaps extensively both within and between stratigraphic levels. Other dental variables examined by inspection change in a mosaic and continuous fashion through the section. These features include variation in the presence and number of paraconids on the lower fourth premolar (p4), the size and shape of the entoconid notch on the lower first and second molars, and the relative development of the pseudohypocone, mesostyle, and cingula on the upper molars., Discussion: These broad patterns can be identified despite notharctine alpha taxonomy being in need of extensive revision and, importantly, simplification. Such revision is beyond the scope of this article but is essential if we are to develop a taxonomy that is both free of stratigraphic influence and useful for rapid, repeatable species assignment. Boundaries among the patterns of tokogenesis, anagenesis, and cladogenesis are blurred in this dense sample of extinct primates. While pattern of evolution, a population-level phenomenon, may be difficult to falsify in the fossil record, this notharctine sample suggests that in the rare instance such as this, when the fossil record is densely sampled, change through time is continuous and more consistent with gradual evolution., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: Biological mortality bias is the idea that individuals who perish (non-survivors) are biologically distinct from those who survive (survivors). If biological mortality bias is large enough, bioarchaeological studies of nonsurvivors (skeletal samples) cannot accurately represent the experiences of the survivors of that population. This effect is particularly problematic for the study of juvenile individuals, as growth is particularly sensitive to environmental insults. In this study, we test whether biological mortality bias exists in one dimension of growth, namely dental development., Materials and Methods: Postmortem computed tomography scans of 206 children aged 12 years and younger at death were collected from two institutions in the United States and Australia. The sample was separated into children dying from natural causes as proxies for non-survivors and from accidental causes as proxies for survivors. Differences in the timing of dental development were assessed using sequential logistic regressions between dental formation stages and residual analysis of dental minus chronological age., Results: No consistent delay in age of attainment of dental stages was documented between survivors and non-survivors. Delays between survivors and non-survivors in dental relative to chronological age were greatest for infants, and were greater for females than for males., Discussion: Lack of biological mortality bias in dental development reinforces confidence in juvenile age estimates and therefore in skeletal growth profiles and growth studies. As dental development is known to be less environmentally sensitive than skeletal growth and development, further studies should examine biological mortality bias in long bone length., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: Subbranches of Y-chromosome haplogroup C2a-L1373 are founding paternal lineages in northern Asia and Native American populations. Our objective was to investigate C2a-L1373 differentiation in northern Asia and its implications for Native American origins., Materials and Methods: Sequences of rare subbranches (n = 43) and ancient individuals (n = 37) of C2a-L1373 (including P39 and MPB373), were used to construct phylogenetic trees with age estimation by BEAST software., Results: C2a-L1373 expanded rapidly approximately 17.7,000-14.3,000 years ago (kya) after the last glacial maximum (LGM), generating numerous sublineages which became founding paternal lineages of modern northern Asian and Native American populations (C2a-P39 and C2a-MPB373). The divergence pattern supports possible initiation of differentiation in low latitude regions of northern Asia and northward diffusion after the LGM. There is a substantial gap between the divergence times of C2a-MPB373 (approximately 22.4 or 17.7 kya) and C2a-P39 (approximately 14.3 kya), indicating two possible migration waves., Discussion: We discussed the decreasing time interval of "Beringian standstill" (2.5 ky or smaller) and its reduced significance. We also discussed the multiple possibilities for the peopling of the Americas: the "Long-term Beringian standstill model," the "Short-term Beringian standstill model," and the "Multiple waves of migration model." Our results support the argument from ancient DNA analyses that the direct ancestor group of Native Americans is an admixture of "Ancient Northern Siberians" and Paleolithic communities from the Amur region, which appeared during the post-LGM era, rather than ancient populations in greater Beringia, or an adjacent region, before the LGM., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: This study describes and demonstrates the functionalities and application of a new R package, morphomap, designed to extract shape information as semilandmarks in multiple sections, build cortical thickness maps, and calculate biomechanical parameters on long bones., Methods: morphomap creates, from a single input (an oriented 3D mesh representing the long bone surface), multiple evenly spaced virtual sections. morphomap then directly and rapidly computes morphometric and biomechanical parameters on each of these sections. The R package comprises three modules: (a) to place semilandmarks on the inner and outer outlines of each section, (b) to extract cortical thicknesses for 2D and 3D morphometric mapping, and (c) to compute cross-sectional geometry., Results: In this article, we apply morphomap to femora from Homo sapiens and Pan troglodytes to demonstrate its utility and show its typical outputs. morphomap greatly facilitates rapid analysis and functional interpretation of long bone form and should prove a valuable addition to the osteoarcheological analysis software toolkit., Conclusions: Long bone loading history is commonly retrodicted by calculating biomechanical parameters such as area moments of inertia, analyzing external shape and measuring cortical thickness. morphomap is a software written in the open source R environment, it integrates the main methodological approaches (geometric morphometrics, cortical morphometric maps, and cross-sectional geometry) used to parametrize long bones., (© 2020 The Authors. American Journal of Physical Anthropology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: This study compares the ontogenetic bone modeling patterns of the maxilla to the related morphological changes in three human populations to better understand how morphological variability within a species is established during ontogeny at both micro- and macroscopic levels., Materials and Methods: The maxillary bones of an ontogenetic sample of 145 subadult and adult individuals from Greenland (Inuit), Western Europe (France, Germany, and Portugal), and South Africa (Khoekhoe and San) were analyzed. Bone formation and resorption were quantified using histological methods to visualize the bone modeling patterns. In parallel, semilandmark geometric morphometric techniques were used on 3D models of the same individuals to capture the morphological changes. Multivariate statistics were applied and shape differences between age groups were visualized through heat maps., Results: The three populations show differences in the degree of shape change acquired during ontogeny, leading to divergences in the developmental trajectories. Only subtle population differences in the bone modeling patterns were found, which were maintained throughout ontogeny. Bone resorption in adults mirrors the pattern found in subadults, but is expressed at lower intensities., Discussion: Our data demonstrate that maxillary morphological differences observed in three geographically distinct human populations are also reflected at the microscopic scale. However, we suggest that these differences are mostly driven by changes in rates and timings of the cellular activities, as only slight discrepancies in the location of bone resorption could be observed. The shared general bone modeling pattern is likely characteristic of all Homo sapiens, and can be observed throughout ontogeny., (© 2020 The Authors. American Journal of Physical Anthropology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: The recent proliferation of methods of 3D model generation has enabled the development of new approaches to the analysis of dental form, function and wear. This article assesses whether Structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry is capable of producing virtual 3D models of teeth of adequate quality for assessing fine scale surface details, such as dental macrowear patterns. Reference models were generated using a high resolution structured light scanner to assess the accuracy of the photogrammetric models generated., Materials and Methods: Dental gypsum models of the molar teeth of human individuals from St. Michael's Litten, Chichester, Post-medieval assemblage (n = 17) were used for 3D model generation. Photogrammetry was performed using Agisoft Metashape and reference 3D models were generated using a GOM ATOS 80 scanner. Focus stacking was explored as a method of enhancing 3D model detail. Differences between the photogrammetric and reference models were assessed using CloudCompare and the quality of the surface detail was examined quantitatively using Occlusal Fingerprint Analysis., Results: Photogrammetric model generation was highly replicable and the tooth models produced closely approximated the overall geometry of those derived from the structured light scanner. Dental wear facet area measurements on the photogrammetric models differed significantly, however, from those derived from the structured light scanning reference models., Discussion: Photogrammetry can create virtual dental models from which crude quantitative size and shape data can be obtained. Finer scale surface details are not accurately reproduced on SfM models using the methods outlined in the current article due to high levels of surface noise., (© 2020 The Authors. American Journal of Physical Anthropology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objectives: Phylogenies consistently group the folivorous Lepilemur species with the small-bodied insectivorous-frugivorous cheirogaleids. Juvenile lepilemurs and adult cheirogaleids share allometries in most aspects of skull morphology, except the palate. We investigated potential influences on palate shape in these taxa and several outgroups using geometric morphometrics., Materials and Methods: Our sample included representatives of four extant strepsirrhine families, Cheirogaleidae (including Lepilemurinae), Lemuridae, Indriidae, and Galagidae, and one subfossil Megaladapis. Our dataset comprised 32 landmarks collected from 397 specimens representing 15 genera and 28 species, and was analyzed using generalized procrustes analyses and between group principal component analysis. We explored the influence of size, phylogeny, diet, and the propagation of loud vocalizations on palate shape., Results: While congeneric species clustered within the morphospace, the phylomorphospace did not mirror molecular phylogenetic hypotheses of higher-order relationships. Four palate forms were distinguished within the Cheirogaleidae. Diet, strongly linked to body size, had the single greatest influence on palate shape. The production of long-distance advertisement calls was most often associated with positive scores on the PC1 axis., Discussion: Our results suggest that the extensive variation in palate shape among Cheirogaleidae is related to dietary shifts that accompanied changes in body size during the clade's radiation. Molecular phylogenies indicate that cheirogaleid diversification involved repeated dwarfing events, which in turn drove dietary shifts from ancestral folivory-frugivory to frugivory, gummivory, and faunivory in the descendant species. The elongated Lepilemur palate is probably related to accelerated eruption of the cheek teeth to render juveniles competent to shear leaves upon weaning., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Objective: Research situated within the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease demonstrates that stressors are correlated with future mortality risk, especially if experienced frequently and during early periods of postnatal life. This study examines if the developmental timing and frequency of early life stressors influenced mortality risk for Indigenous Guale in Spanish Florida during the 17th century., Materials and Methods: The present study examines internal enamel microgrowth disruptions (accentuated lines-AL) from Guale individuals (n = 52) interred at Mission Santa Catalina de Guale on St. Catherines Island, Georgia (AD 1605-1680). Teeth were thin-sectioned and microscopically analyzed to document AL variables as predictors of age-at-death., Results: Individuals with AL died earlier than those without AL. This difference, however, was not significant. Individuals who exhibit AL formed during their first year of life died on average three times earlier than those who did not. The frequency of AL and age-at-first-AL are significantly correlated with age-at-death, and Cox hazard analyses indicates that individuals with early forming and frequent AL had increased risks of early death., Discussion: This study emphasizes how the lived experiences of Guale children shaped demographic patterns during the 17th century. The survival of early life stressors resulted in life history trade-offs and increased risks for early death. Mortality risks were exacerbated for individuals who experienced frequent stressors during the earliest periods of life. This underscores a role for bioarchaeology in understanding of how accumulative stress burdens during the earliest years of postnatal life may influence mortality risk., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: In order to understand contacts between cultural spheres in the third millennium BC, we investigated the impact of a new herder culture, the Battle Axe culture, arriving to Scandinavia on the people of the sub-Neolithic hunter-gatherer Pitted Ware culture. By investigating the genetic make-up of Pitted Ware culture people from two types of burials (typical Pitted Ware culture burials and Battle Axe culture-influenced burials), we could determine the impact of migration and the impact of cultural influences., Methods: We sequenced and analyzed the genomes of 25 individuals from typical Pitted Ware culture burials and from Pitted Ware culture burials with Battle Axe culture influences in order to determine if the different burial types were associated with different gene-pools., Results: The genomic data show that all individuals belonged to one genetic population-a population associated with the Pitted Ware culture-irrespective of the burial style., Conclusion: We conclude that the Pitted Ware culture communities were not impacted by gene-flow, that is, via migration or exchange of mates. These different cultural expressions in the Pitted Ware culture burials are instead a consequence of cultural exchange., (© 2020 The Authors. American Journal of Physical Anthropology published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: This study examines long bone diaphyseal rigidity and shape of hunter-gatherers at Roonka to make inferences about subsistence strategies and mobility of inhabitants of semi-arid southeastern Australia. Roonka is a cemetery site adjacent to the Lower Murray River, which contains over 200 individuals buried throughout the Holocene. Archaeological evidence indicates that populations living near this river corridor employed mobile, risk averse foraging strategies., Methods: This prediction of lifestyle was tested by comparing the cross-sectional geometric properties of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fibula of individuals from Roonka to samples of varying subsistence strategies. Bilateral asymmetry of the upper limb bones was also examined., Results: Roonka males and females have moderately high lower limb diaphyseal rigidity and shape. In the upper limb, females have low rigidity and bilateral asymmetry while males have moderately high rigidity and bilateral asymmetry. This pattern is similar to other foraging groups from Australia and southern Africa that have behaviorally adapted to arid and semi-arid environments., Discussion: Lower limb results suggest that populations in the Lower Murray River Valley had relatively elevated foraging mobility. Upper limb rigidity and bilateral asymmetry indicate a sexual division of labor at Roonka. Females resemble other samples that had mixed subsistence strategies that involved hunting, gathering, and processing tasks. Males display a pattern similar to groups that preferentially hunted large game, but that supplemented this source with smaller game and riverine resources., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: Mandibular morphological variation is often used to examine various aspects of human palaeobiology. However, fossil and archeological skeletal remains are often fragmented/distorted and so are frequently excluded from studies. This leads to decreased sample sizes and, potentially, to biased results. Thus, it is of interest to restore the original anatomy of incomplete/distorted specimens. Thin plate splines (TPS), commonly used in Geometric Morphometrics (GM), offer the prospect of reconstruction of missing parts and particularly of interest here, missing landmarks., Materials and Methods: Here, the reliability of TPS based mandibular reconstruction is tested. To that end missing landmarks were simulated in originally complete hemimandibles. TPS was then used to restore the location of simulated missing data and the predicted landmarks were compared to the original ones., Results: Results show that error varies according to the number and location of estimated landmarks. Notwithstanding, estimation error is usually considerably smaller than the morphological differences between individuals from the same species., Discussion: TPS based reconstruction allows fragmentary mandibles to be used in studies of whole mandibular variation, provided the above mentioned caveats are considered., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: Probit has not been applied to ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology. The goals of this study were to: (1) evaluate the performance of probit analysis as a classification tool for ancestry estimation using ordinal data and (2) expand our current understanding of human cranial variation for an understudied population., Methods: Multivariate probit models were used to classify the ancestral affiliation of Filipino crania using morphoscopic traits. Ancestral reference populations represented Africa, Asia, and Europe in a three-group model, with the addition of Hispanics in a four-group model. Posterior probabilities across these groups were interpreted as admixture proportions of an individual. Model performance was also evaluated for individuals with missing data., Results: The overall correct classification rates for the three-group and four-group models were 72.1% and 68.6%, respectively. Filipinos classified as Asian 52.9% of the time using three ancestral reference groups and 48.6% using four groups. A large portion of Filipinos also classified as African. There were no significant differences in classification trends or accuracy rates between complete crania and crania with at least one missing variable., Conclusions: Multivariate probit models using morphoscopic traits perform well when populations are represented in both training and test samples. Probit can also accommodate individuals with missing data. Classifying Filipinos showed only moderate success. Filipinos are more phenotypically similar to Africans than the other Asian samples used here, but still affiliate most closely as Asian. Ancestry methods would benefit from including Filipinos as a reference sample given the additional variation they provide to the continental category of Asian., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: Human populations native to high altitude exhibit numerous genetic adaptations to hypobaric hypoxia. Among Tibetan plateau peoples, these include increased vasodilation and uncoupling of erythropoiesis from hypoxia., Objective/methods: We tested the hypothesis that these high-altitude adaptations reduce risk for hypertension and diabetes-associated anemia among the Mosuo, a Tibetan-descended population in the mountains of Southwest China that is experiencing rapid economic change and increased chronic disease risk., Results: Hypertension was substantially less common among Mosuo than low-altitude Han populations, and models fit to the Han predicted higher probability of hypertension than models fit to the Mosuo. Diabetes was positively associated with anemia among the Han, but not the Mosuo., Conclusion: The Mosuo have lower risk for hypertension and diabetes-associated anemia than the Han, supporting the hypothesis that high-altitude adaptations affecting blood and circulation intersect with chronic disease processes to lower risk for these outcomes. As chronic diseases continue to grow as global health concerns, it is important to investigate how they may be affected by local genetic adaptations., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: This study examines violence-related cranial trauma frequencies and wound characteristics in the pre-Hispanic cemetery of Uraca in the lower Majes Valley, Arequipa, Peru, dating to the pre- and early-Wari periods (200-750 CE). Cranial wounds are compared between status and sex-based subgroups to understand how violence shaped, and was shaped by, these aspects of identity, and to reconstruct the social contexts of violence carried out by and against Uracans., Materials and Methods: Presence, location, and characteristics (lethality, penetration, and post-traumatic sequelae) of antemortem and perimortem cranial fractures are documented for 145 crania and compared between subgroups. Cranial wounds are mapped in ArcGIS and the locational distribution of injuries is compared between male and female crania., Results: Middle adult males were disproportionately interred at Uraca, particularly in the elite Sector I. The Uraca mortuary population presents the highest rate of cranial trauma reported for pre-Hispanic Peru: 67% of adults present trauma, and among those, 61.1% present more than one cranial injury. Males exhibit significantly more cranial trauma than females and present a higher mean number of injuries per person. Elite males show the highest mean number of injuries per person, more antemortem injuries, and are the only ones with perimortem cranial trauma, bladed injuries, penetrating injuries, and post-traumatic sequelae. Both sexes were most frequently injured on the anterior of the cranium, while the proportion of posterior injuries was higher for females., Discussion: The rate, intensity, and locational patterns of cranial trauma suggests the community was engaged in raids and/or war with enemy groups, some of which may have increased physical violence between community members. Engaging in violence was likely a prerequisite for burial in the elite sector and was bound up with the generation and maintenance of social status differences linked to male social life., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

"Monogamy" and pair bonding have long been of interest to anthropologists and primatologists. Their study contributes to our knowledge of human evolutionary biology and social evolution without the cultural trappings associated with studying human societies directly. Here, we first provide an overview of theoretical considerations, followed by an evaluation of recent comparative studies of the evolution of "social monogamy"; we are left with serious doubts about the conclusions of these studies that stem from the often poor quality of the data used and an overreliance on secondary sources without vetting the data therein. We then describe our field research program on four "monogamous" platyrrhines (owl monkeys, titis, sakis, and tamarins), evaluate how well our data support various hypotheses proposed to explain "monogamy," and compare our data to those reported on the same genera in comparative studies. Overall, we found a distressing lack of agreement between the data used in comparative studies and data from the literature for the taxa that we work with. In the final section, we propose areas of research that deserve more attention. We stress the need for more high-quality natural history data, and we urge researchers to be cautious about the uncritical use of variables of uncertain internal validity. Overall, it is imperative that biological anthropologists establish and follow clear criteria for comparing and combining results from published studies and that researchers, reviewers, and editors alike comply with these standards to improve the transparency, reproducibility, and interpretability of causal inferences made in comparative studies., (© 2020 American Association of Physical Anthropologists.)

Syphilis was perceived to be a new disease in Europe in the late 15th century, igniting a debate about its origin that continues today in anthropological, historical, and medical circles. We move beyond this age-old debate using an interdisciplinary approach that tackles broader questions to advance the understanding of treponemal infection (syphilis, yaws, bejel, and pinta). How did the causative organism(s) and humans co-evolve? How did the related diseases caused by Treponema pallidum emerge in different parts of the world and affect people across both time and space? How are T. pallidum subspecies related to the treponeme causing pinta? The current state of scholarship in specific areas is reviewed with recommendations made to stimulate future work. Understanding treponemal biology, genetic relationships, epidemiology, and clinical manifestations is crucial for vaccine development today and for investigating the distribution of infection in both modern and past populations. Paleopathologists must improve diagnostic criteria and use a standard approach for recording skeletal lesions on archaeological human remains. Adequate contextualization of cultural and environmental conditions is necessary, including site dating and justification for any corrections made for marine or freshwater reservoir effects. Biogeochemical analyses may assess aquatic contributions to diet, physiological changes arising from treponemal disease and its treatments (e.g., mercury), or residential mobility of those affected. Shifting the focus from point of origin to investigating who is affected (e.g., by age/sex or socioeconomic status) and disease distribution (e.g., coastal/ inland, rural/urban) will advance our understanding of the treponemal disease and its impact on people through time., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: Early Byzantine (A.D. 330-842) monastic rules stipulated that entrants relinquished familial connections, personal belongings and secular relationships to become part of the ascetic collective that continued in death, resulting in bioarchaeological marginalization, as was the case of the monastics excavated from the Chapel of Robebus at Mount Nebo, Jordan (ca. A.D. 491-640). It was hypothesized that compared to contemporary monastic groups, the Mount Nebo monastics experienced poorer health and gravitated to Mount Nebo, owing to its association with the Prophet Moses and proximity to the Dead Sea, Livias baths and Jordan River, all associated with curative benefits, especially for those suffering from leprosy., Materials and Methods: The commingled remains of 73 adult males from Mount Nebo and the articulated skeletons (n = 27) from the Sanctuary of Agios Lot at Deir 'Ain 'Abata (Jordan) were assessed for paleopathology, then compared with a contemporary commingled group from the Monastery of Saint Euthymius at Khan-el-Ahmar (Judean Desert) (n = 117)., Results: No skeletal evidence of leprosy was observed among the groups. Most Mount Nebo individuals did not reach an older age, yet injuries, severe osteoarthritis, lower leg osteoperiostitis and antemortem tooth loss were common. The paleopathological profile was similar at Deir 'Ain 'Abata, but paleopathology was negligible at Khan-el-Ahmar., Conclusions: The similar paleopathological profiles of the Jordanian monastic groups suggest that the proximity to the Dead Sea may have attracted monastics to both sites, in addition to spirituality, but leprosy was not a factor based on the skeletal evidence., (© 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: We are testing competing scenarios regarding the population history of the ancient Greek colonization of southern Italy using dental phenotypic evidence., Materials and Methods: We collected dental metric and nonmetric trait data for 481 human skeletons from six archaeological sites along the Gulf of Taranto, dating to pre-colonial (900-700 BC) and post-colonial periods (700-200 BC). We are evaluating scenarios through an individual-level biodistance analysis using a three-pronged approach: (a) by analyzing levels of mobility in pre- and post-colonial periods under a model of isolation-by-distance; (b) by quantifying differences in group means and variances in pre- and post-colonial periods utilizing permutational multivariate analysis of variance and Betadisper analyses; and (c) by identifying ancestries of post-colonial individuals using naïve Bayes classification., Results: Southern Italy during pre-colonial times was characterized by low levels of mobility and marked differences in group means and variances. During post-colonial times, mobility increased and there were no differences in group means and variances. About 18% of the people in post-colonial times were of Greek ancestry and lived equally distributed across Greek colonies and indigenous villages. Nevertheless, the overall biological composition and variability of southern Italy remained relatively unchanged across pre- and post-colonial periods., Discussion: Our results support a scenario in which only few Greek colonists migrated to southern Italy and lived in smaller numbers alongside indigenous people in Greek colonies as well as in indigenous villages. Our results contradict a scenario in which large numbers of Greek invaders founded biologically isolated and substantially homogeneous colonial enclaves within conquered territories., (© 2019 The Authors. American Journal of Physical Anthropology published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: The taxonomic status of isolated hominoid teeth from the Asian Pleistocene has long been controversial due to difficulties distinguishing between pongine and hominin molars given their high degree of morphometrical variation and overlap. Here, we combine nonmetric and geometric morphometric data to document a dental pattern that appears to be taxonomically diagnostic among Pongo. We focus on the protoconule, a cuspule of well-documented evolutionary history, as well as on shape differences of the mesial fovea of the upper molars., Materials and Methods: We examined 469 upper molars of eight hominid genera (Australopithecus, Paranthropus, Homo, Meganthropus, Sivapithecus, Pan, Gorilla, and Pongo), including representatives of Homo erectus and extinct and recent Pongo. Analyses were conducted at the enamel-dentine junction to overcome the limitations introduced by dental wear., Results: We found that a moderate or large protoconule is present in ~80% of Pleistocene and extant Pongo. Conversely, a moderate to pronounced protoconule in hominins, Meganthropus, and African great apes occurs in low frequencies (~0-20%). Canonical variate analyses for the mesial fovea show that Pleistocene and extant Pongo cluster together and are clearly differentiated from all other groups, except for Sivapithecus., Discussion: This study suggests that the protoconule and the shape of the mesial fovea in upper molars are useful features for the taxonomic identification of isolated hominid teeth. By identifying these new features, our results can contribute to the better understanding of hominoid evolutionary history and biogeography during the Asian Pleistocene. However, we emphasize that the reported features should be used in combination with other diagnostic variables for the most accurate taxonomic assessments., (© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: Physiological disturbances in early life have been shown to increase individual mortality risk and impact health in adulthood. This study examines frailty through analysis of lesion status of two commonly collected skeletal indicators of stress (cribra orbitalia [CO] and porotic hyperostosis [PH]) and their association with mortality risk in the precontact U.S. Southwest. Several predictions are addressed: (a) individuals with active skeletal lesions are the frailest; (b) individuals with healed lesions are the least frail; (c) CO lesions, regardless of status, are associated with increased mortality risk., Materials and Methods: Odds ratios and Kaplan-Meier survival analysis are used to examine the association between stress indicators and mortality in the U.S. Southwest. This study includes 335 individuals (75 females, 81 males, 20 adults of unknown sex, and 159 juveniles) from precontact New Mexico archaeological sites dating to A.D. 1,000-1,400., Results: Active CO and PH lesions are associated with lower survivorship and greater mortality risk than healed or absent lesions. Only juvenile individuals have active CO and PH lesions, as is expected given their physiology. CO lesions in any state are associated with greater mortality risk and earlier ages of death., Discussion: Individuals with active lesions are the frailest; while individuals with healed lesions are the least frail. CO and PH likely have different etiologies: CO lesions are associated with increased mortality risk and decreased individual longevity. These results indicate that CO's presence suggests a more severe underlying condition than PH lesions alone., (© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objectives: To increase understanding of the subsistence practices of the first Americans through analysis of the near-complete dentition of a young woman dating to the terminal Pleistocene of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico., Materials and Methods: The skeleton is that of "Naia" a 15 to 17-year-old female from the submerged natural trap of Hoyo Negro found in association with remains of numerous extinct species of megafauna. Superbly preserved remains included the skull with 28 teeth, which are analyzed for evidence of caries, periodontal disease, wear patterns, and malocclusion., Results: Naia exhibits a high frequency of dental caries, along with aggressive periodontal disease that threatened all her teeth, particularly her incisors. Dental attrition was extremely light for a hunter-gatherer, reaching to four on the Molnar scale on only one tooth. Lack of wear is associated with severe mandibular retrognathia, and low masticatory forces., Discussion: Naia's dental condition is compared with that of other northern Paleoamericans, mostly females, dating before 11,000 cal BP. These exhibit a high degree of variability in both caries and tooth wear. All, however, exhibit rapid anterior wear owing to technological use of the front teeth. Naia exhibits the highest rate of caries, similar to that of the earliest South Americans, and one of the lowest rates of attrition. This demonstrates that she had a nonabrasive diet that was at least seasonally rich in carbohydrates. This does not mean her diet was low in meat, however, because similarly light dental attrition is seen in the Arch Lake female, a Paleoamerican from a big-game hunting society., (© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)