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Our growing awareness of the microbial worlds importance and diversity contrasts starkly with our limited understanding of its fundamental structure. Despite recent advances in DNA sequencing, a lack of standardized protocols and common analytical frameworks impedes comparisons among studies, hindering the development of global inferences about microbial life on Earth. Here we present a meta-analysis of microbial community samples collected by hundreds of researchers for the Earth Microbiome Project. Coordinated protocols and new analytical methods, particularly the use of exact sequences instead of clustered operational taxonomic units, enable bacterial and archaeal ribosomal RNA gene sequences to be followed across multiple studies and allow us to explore patterns of diversity at an unprecedented scale. The result is both a reference database giving global context to DNA sequence data and a framework for incorporating data from future studies, fostering increasingly complete characterization of Earths microbial diversity., Author(s): Luke R. Thompson [1, 2, 3]; Jon G. Sanders [1]; Daniel McDonald [1]; Amnon Amir [1]; Joshua Ladau [4]; Kenneth J. Locey [5]; Robert J. Prill [6]; Anupriya Tripathi [...]

Background: The hemizygous 22q11.2 microdeletion is a common copy number variant in humans. The deletion confers high risk for neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism and schizophrenia. Up to 41% of deletion carriers experience psychotic symptoms. Methods: We present a new mouse model (Df(h22q11)/+) of the deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) and report on, to our knowledge, the most comprehensive study undertaken to date in 22q11.2DS models. The study was conducted in male mice. Results: We found elevated postpubertal W-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist-induced hyperlocomotion, age-independent prepulse inhibition (PPI) deficits and increased acoustic startle response (ASR). The PPI deficit and increased ASR were resistant to antipsychotic treatment. The PPI deficit was not a consequence of impaired hearing measured by auditory brain stem responses. The Df(h22q11)/+ mice also displayed increased amplitude of loudness-dependent auditory evoked potentials. Prefrontal cortex and dorsal striatal elevations of the dopamine metabolite DOPAC and increased dorsal striatal expression of the AMPA receptor subunit GluR1 was found. The Df(h22q11)/+ mice did not deviate from wild-type mice in a wide range of other behavioural and biochemical assays. Limitations: The 22q11.2 microdeletion has incomplete penetrance in humans, and the severity of disease depends on the complete genetic makeup in concert with environmental factors. In order to obtain more marked phenotypes reflecting the severe conditions related to 22q11.2DS it is suggested to expose the Df(h22q11)/+ mice to environmental stressors that may unmask latent psychopathology. Conclusion: The Df(h22q11)/+ model will be a valuable tool for increasing our understanding of the etiology of schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders associated with the 22q11DS., Introduction The 22q11.2 hemizygous microdeletion confers very high risk for neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism and schizophrenia (22q11.2 deletion syndrome [22q11.2DS]). The estimated prevalence is approximately 1 in 2000. (1) The [...]

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a flavivirus in the family Flaviviridae. The TBEV positive-sense RNA genome is translated as a polyprotein and subsequently cleaved into 3 structural and 7 nonstructural [...]

Examining species boundaries using data from multiple independent sources is an appropriate and robust method to identify genetically isolated evolutionary units. We used 5 data sets--cytochrome b (Cytb), cytochrome c oxidase (COI), amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs), karyotypes, and morphology--to estimate phylogenetic relationships and species limits within woolly bats, genus Kerivoula, from Southeast Asia. We genetically analyzed 54 specimens of Kerivoula from Malaysia, assigned to 6 of the 10 species currently reported from the country. Phylogenetic analyses of nuclear AFLPs (33 specimens) and mitochondrial DNA sequences from Cytb (51 specimens) and COI (48 specimens) resulted in similar statistically supported species-level clades with minimal change in branching order. Using comparisons of cranial and dental morphology and original species descriptions, we assigned the resulting phylogenetic clades to K. hardwickii, K. intermedia, K. lenis, K. minuta, K. papillosa, K pellucida, and 1 unidentified species. Karyotypes further documented variability among the 6 clades. Five different karyotypes were identified, with 2 species having indistinguishable karyotypes. We compared our COI gene sequence data to 110 specimens of Kerivoula from Southeast Asia made available by researchers of the Barcode of Life Database. Our Cytb and AFLP species identifications were congruent with those in the COI database. Intraspecific geographic variation of about 5-7% sequence divergence was observed in Cytb and COI genes within both K. hardwickii and K. minuta. Relaxed molecular clock analyses indicated a late Oligocene to early Miocene origin of the Kerivoulinae with intraspecific diversification events coinciding with the late Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs in at least 6 species. Specimens from Sabah (northeastern Borneo) showed relatively high genetic divergence compared to those between Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak (southwestern Borneo), indicating Pleistocene or Pliocene refugia in Borneo. We conclude that at least 1 distinct lineage of Kerivoula is yet to be described from Borneo and that the intraspecific geographic variation in some species agrees with previous studies on the diversification of flora and fauna in Borneo. DOI: 10.1644/09-MAMM-A-361.1. Key words: amplified fragment length polymorphism, Borneo, cytochrome b, cytochrome c oxidase, karyotypes, Kerivoulinae, Malaysia, morphology, taxonomy

Most diploid species arise from single-species ancestors. Hybrid origins of new species are uncommon (except among polyploids) and are documented infrequently in animals. Examples of natural hybridization leading to speciation in mammals are exceedingly rare. Here, we show a Caribbean species of bat (Artibeus schwartzi) has a nuclear genome derived from two nonsister but congeneric species (A. jamaicensis and A. planirostris) and a mitochondrial genome that is from a third extinct or uncharacterized congener. Artibeus schwartzi is self-sustaining, morphologically distinct, and exists in near geographic isolation of its known parent species. Island effects (i.e., area, reduced habitat variability, and geographic isolation) likely have restricted gene flow from parental species into the Caribbean populations of this hybrid lineage, thus contributing to local adaptation and isolation of this newly produced taxon. We hypothesize differential rates of the development of reproductive isolation within the genus and estimate that 2.5 million years was an insufficient amount of time for the development of postzygotic isolation among the three species that hybridized to produce A. schwartzi. Reticulated evolution thus has resulted in a genomic combination from three evolutionary lineages and a transgressive phenotype that is distinct from all other known species of Artibeus. The data herein further demonstrate the phenomenon of speciation by hybridization in mammals is possible in nature. Artibeus | Chiroptera | hybrid speciation | reticulate evolution | transgressive segregation doi/ 10.1073/pnas.1000133107

Objectives. We assessed the impact of restaurant menu calorie labels on food choices and intake. Methods. Participants in a study dinner (n=303) were randomly assigned to either (1) a menu without calorie labels (no calorie labels), (2) a menu with calorie labels (calorie labels), or (3) a menu with calorie labels and a label stating the recommended daily caloric intake for an average adult (calorie labels plus information). Food choices and intake during and after the study dinner were measured. Results. Participants in both calorie label conditions ordered fewer calories than those in the no calorie labels condition. When calorie label conditions were combined, that group consumed 14% fewer calories than the no calorie labels group. Individuals in the calorie labels condition consumed more calories after the study dinner than those in both other conditions. When calories consumed during and after the study dinner were combined, participants in the calorie labels plus information group consumed an average of 250 fewer calories than those in the other groups. Conclusions. Calorie labels on restaurant menus impacted food choices and intake; adding a recommended daily caloric requirement label increased this effect, suggesting menu label legislation should require such a label. Future research should evaluate menu labeling's impact on children's food choices and consumption. (Am J Public Health. 2010;100:312-318. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2009. 160226)

Formal methods use mathematical models for analysis and verification at any part of the program life-cycle. We describe the state of the art in the industrial use of formal methods, concentrating on their increasing use at the earlier stages of specification and design. We do this by reporting on a new survey of industrial use, comparing the situation in 2009 with the most significant surveys carried out over the last 20 years. We describe some of the highlights of our survey by presenting a series of industrial projects, and we draw some observations from these surveys and records of experience. Based on this, we discuss the issues surrounding the industrial adoption of formal methods. Finally, we look to the future and describe the development of a Verified Software Repository, part of the worldwide Verified Software Initiative. We introduce the initial projects being used to populate the repository, and describe the challenges they address. Categories and Subject Descriptors: D.2.4 [Software Engineering]: Software/Program Verification--Assertion checkers, class invariants, correctness proofs, formal methods, model checking, programming by contract; F.3.1 [Logics and Meanings of Programs]: Specifying and Verifying and Reasoning about Programs--Assertions invariants, logics of programs, mechanical verification, pre- and post-conditions, specification techniques; F.4.1 [Mathematical Logic and Formal Languages]: Mathematical Logic--Mechanical theorem proving; 1.2.2 [Artificial Intelligence]: Automatic Programming--Program verification General Terms: Documentation, Experimentation, Management, Measurement, Reliability, Theory, Verification Additional Key Words and Phrases: Experimental software engineering, formal methods surveys, grand challenges, verified software initiative, verified software repository ACM Reference Format: Woodcock, J., Larsen, P.G. Bicarregui, J., and Fitzgerald, J. 2009. Formal methods: Practice and experience ACM Comput. Surv. 41, 4, Article 19(October 2009), 36 pages. DOI = 10.1145/1592434.1592436 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1592434.1592436

We phylogenetically analyze 705 base pairs of the cytochrome-b gene and 351 amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) bands from populations of the karyotypically variable Wagner's bonneted bat, Eumops glaucinus, and the Florida bonneted bat, Eumops floridanus (Chiroptera: Molossidae). Three karyotypes have been documented across the range of E. glaucinus, and we report that the karyotype from Cuba is morphologically similar to that from Jamaica. A 4th karyotype is present in specimens from western Ecuador. Three distinct lineages are present in both the cytochrome-b and AFLP trees. One lineage is restricted to western Ecuador and exhibits cytochrome-b divergence values comparable to the values seen between recognized species of Eumops, suggesting that this lineage represents a distinct species. The other 2 lineages are distributed in disjunct areas: Paraguay and Venezuela; and Mexico, the Caribbean, and the United States. Specimens of E. floridanus are morphologically distinct from E. glaucinus, but cannot be distinguished by examination of cytochrome-b or AFLP DNA data. We conclude that there are 4 species in the E. glaucinus complex-E. glaucinus (South America east of the Andes), E. ferox (Caribbean, Mexico, and Central America), E. floridanus in south Florida, and an unnamed taxon in western Ecuador. Speciation is a complex process and no single mechanism, model, concept, or definition is likely to cover all the diverse patterns observed. Key words: amplified fragment length polymorphism, bonneted bat, cytochrome b, Eumops floridanus, Eumops glaucinus, Genetic Species Concept, karyotype, Molossidae

The phylogenetics and phylogeography of the Jamaican fruit-eating bat (Artibeus jamaicensis) were examined based on analysis of DNA sequence variation in the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene for 176 individuals representing all 13 subspecies of A. jamaicensis (sensu Simmons 2005). Results document that A. jamaicensis (sensu Simmons 2005) comprises 3 monophyletic assemblages that are separated phylogenetically by the presence of A. obscurus, A. lituratus, and A. amplus. According to the mitochondrial DNA sequence variation, A. jamaicensis, A. schwartzi, and A. planirostris are appropriate species-level names for these lineages. Haplotypes identifiable as A. jamaicensis were absent east of the Andes Mountains in South America; haplotypes of A. schwartzi were documented throughout the Lesser Antilles and from northern Venezuela, and haplotypes of A. planirostris were identified east of the Andes Mountains in South America, north of the Orinoco River in Venezuela, and from the southern Lesser Antilles. Haplotypes of Artibeus jamaicensis, A. schwartzi, and A. planirostris were identified sympatrically on Carriacou, a small island in the southern Lesser Antilles that is ecologically monotypic. The magnitude of genetic divergence separating A. jamaicensis, A. planirostris, and A. schwartzi essentially equals the magnitude of genetic divergence distinguishing A. lituratus, A. obscurus, and A. jamaicensis. Studies of the nuclear genome will be required to understand the biological implications of these patterns in the mitochondrial genome. Key words: Artibeus jamaicensis, cytochrome b, mitochondrial DNA, phylogenetics, phylogeography, phylogroups, species, Genetic Species Concept

Research has ben conducted on the mitochondrial proteins which interact with phosphatidylcholine. The use of photolabeling approach applied in search of these proteins in which the photoactivatable probes are incorporated into the isolated yeast mitochondria is described.

The six ring heterohelicene, 7,8-dioxa[6]helicenes, is prepared by oxidtion of the precursor and the sulfur analogue, a,14c-dihydro-7,8-dioxa[6]helicenes. Crystal structure of the latter compound crystallizes in a chiral conformation in the solid state, while the former exhibits a complex partly ordered superstructure.

Phosphangulene or 4,8,12-trioxa-12c-phospha-4,8,12,12c-tetrahydrodibenzo-(cd,mn)pyrene was synthesized and its crystalline structure was determined. The compound has a permanent polarization and consequent pyroelectric characteristics. It was found to belong to a rare space group and to have pyroelectric properties which have been determined in the temperature range 20-110 degrees C. The material can be used for infrared detection and is comparable in performance with known materials but has a significant vapor pressure just above room temperature, making application difficult.

A new synthetic sequence helps convert mesoionic 2-(dimethylamino)-5-methyl-1,3-dithiolium 4-thiolate to a gel-forming compound, bis-arborol-tetrathiafulvalene. Optical and atomic force microscopic studies of the gel reveal the existence of string-like superstructures having lengths of the order of microns and diameters from 30 to a few hundred nanometers. Absorption spectroscopic studies of the compound in neutral and oxidized states show that conduction occurs through stacks formed by tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) units. Cyclic voltammetric studies show that arborol substituents have no influence on the redox potential of TTF units in the compound.

The effect on turbulence of adding coarse sand, carried as bed load, in flows of water and clay suspensions was studied. The results showed that the mean velocity of the flows carrying bed load was smaller and the turbulence intensity was greater than those in the flows without bed load. The presence of bed load resulted in higher Reynolds stress and larger velocity gradient, and thus greatly enhanced the energy transmitted from the mean motion to turbulence. In flows of clay suspension, turbulence developed in the lower flow with quite high turbulence intensity, while laminar flow occurred in the upper flow. However, with bed load the entire flow became turbulent. The position of maximum turbulence intensity was more distant from the bed. The average turbulence intensity increased with rate of bed-load transport. The spectrum of turbulent energy shifted to higher frequencies in bed-load-carrying flows.

In the May 1986 issue of Journal of Management Studies, Ray argued that Corporate Culture protagonists have stumbled upon the central ideas of classical sociologist Durkheim, especially those concerning morality. However, this article demonstrates important differences between corporate culture discourse and the Durkheimian concept of morality. Durkheim's views on moral autonomy, his diagnosis of the problematc nature of modern utilitarian values and his insistence on society as the source and the goal of morality are applied as a frame of reference that allows an identification, analysis and discussion of problematic assumptions about man, organization and society in corporate culture discources. On this basis, the article discusses the relatively limited fulfilment of the promises issued by corporate culture protagonists, which can be observed by reflecting on the past decade, as well as some alternative ideas for organizational culture practitioners and researchers. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

The synthesis of four 1, 4-dithiafulvenyl substituted bianthrones for potential application in molecular electronics was investigated. Friedel- Crafts acylation of 10, 10'-dimethoxy-9,9'-bianthracene with an excess of acyl chloride gave 3-acyl- and 3,3'-diacyl-10,10'-dimethoxy-9,9'-bianthracenes which underwent a Horner-Emmons reaction. The 1,4-dithiafulvenyl group was then introduced to stabilize oxidation processes. The electrochemical properties and UV-vis spectra of the synthesized compounds were determined and compared to bianthrone.

Iron L-edge, iron K-edge, and sulfur K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy is performed on a series of compounds ([([H.sub.3]buea)[Fe.sup.III-]X].sub.n-] (X = [S.sub.2-], [O.sup.2-], O[H.sup.-]) and the electronic structures are used to correlate to density functional theory calculations. The results have shown that hydrogen bonding to [Fe.sup.IV]-O is less energetically favorable than that to [Fe.sup.III]-O, which reflects the highly covalent nature of the [Fe.sup.IV]-O bond.

The changes in mean arterial pressure (MAP), renal (RBF) and femoral (FBF) blood flows, and inferior cardiac (CN) and vertebral nerve (VN) sympathetic nerve discharges (SND) produced by chemical activation (V,L-homocysteic acid) of the midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG) were compared in baroreceptor-denervated and -innervated cats anesthetized with urethan. Defenselike cardiovascular responses in both states were similar in magnitude and consisted of increased MAP and FBF and decreased RBF; however, the nerve responses differed. In baroreceptor-denervated cats, PAG activation increased CN 10-Hz activity, decreased VN 10-Hz activity, and lengthened the CN-VN phase angle. In baroreceptor-innervated cats in which the rhythm in SND was cardiac related, PAG activation increased CN activity, but VN activity and the CN-VN phase angle were unchanged. These results demonstrate that chemical activation of PAG neurons induces differential patterns of sympathetic outflow generally consistent with accompanying defenselike cardiovascular responses. However, the mechanisms responsible for the changes in 10-Hz and cardiac-related SND appear to be different. periaqueductal gray; regional blood flows; sympathetic nerve discharge

Differential pattern of spinal sympathetic outflow in response to stimulation of the caudal medullary raphe. Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 279: R210-R221, 2000.--In urethan-anesthetized cats, frequency domain analysis was used to explore the mechanisms of differential responses of inferior cardiac (CN), vertebral (VN), and renal (RN) sympathetic nerves to electrical stimulation of a discrete region of the medullary raphe (0-2 mm caudal to the obex). Raphe stimulation in baroreceptor-denervated cats at frequencies (7-12 Hz) that entrained the 10-Hz rhythm in nerve activity decreased CN and RN activities but increased VN activity. The reductions in CN and RN discharges were associated with decreased low-frequency ([is less than or equal to] 6 Hz) power and either increased (low stimulus intensity) or decreased (high stimulus intensity) 10-Hz band power. In contrast, VN 10-Hz band power was increased at all stimulus intensities, without changes in low-frequency power. High-frequency (25 Hz) stimulation decreased low-frequency activity of CN and RN discharges in both baroreceptor-denervated and baroreceptor-intact cats, without decreasing VN low-frequency activity. We propose that the differential pattern produced by raphe stimulation involves resonance at the level of the 10-Hz oscillators and differential inhibition of follower circuits that transmit both 10-Hz and low-frequency activity to sympathetic nerves. coupled oscillators; differential inhibition; follower circuits; resonance