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Starting Early Starting Smart (SESS) is a knowledge development initiative designed to: (1) create and test a new model for providing mental health and substance abuse prevention and treatment for young children (birth to 7 years) and their families; and (2) inform practitioners and policymakers of successful interventions and promising practices from a multi-year study. In the third year of the first 5-year phase, 12 culturally diverse grantee organizations provide integrated behavioral health services in community-based early childhood settings where families customarily receive services for children. This report identifies the conceptual and methodological issues associated with the analysis of costs and outcomes of early intervention programs in general and makes recommendations regarding the application of these tools for subsequent demonstration studies of SESS. Chapter 1 discusses the results-based accountability movement in social services and argues that knowledge about the relationship between costs and outcomes is useful for program directors but is also important for developing policy approaches at a more general level. Chapter 2 provides a primer on various types of cost and outcome analysis: cost-benefit, cost-effectiveness, and related methods within the broader decision support framework or policy scorecard analysis. Chapter 3 discusses issues in cost and outcome analysis specific to early childhood intervention programs, focusing on measures for benefits and estimation of costs. Chapter 4 reviews the literature on cost and outcome analysis for early childhood intervention programs and provides illustrations of such analyses from the Perry Preschool Program, the Elmira Prenatal/Early Infancy Project, and the Chicago Child Parent Centers. Chapter 5 applies the concepts to the SESS program, with specific recommendations regarding the evaluation design and implementation of cost and outcome analysis. Chapter 6 summarizes the main findings and presents conclusions. Three appendices include descriptions of the grantees and mission statements of the national collaborators involved in the project. Also appended is the Executive Summary. (Contains 1 figure, 15 tables, and a 77-item bibliography.) (KB)

This paper describes an approach to large-scale assessment that uses tests that are delivered to students over the Internet and that are tailored (adapted) to each student's own level of proficiency. A brief background on large-scale assessment is followed by a description of this new technology and an example. Issues that need to be investigated are outlined. This computerized testing approach has three main features: (1) test items are administered adaptively; (2) the system uses several different types of questions, including selected-response and constructed-response items and (3) the assessment is administered through the Internet rather than relying solely on stand-alone workstations. Among the major advantages of such an approach would be decreased testing time; and improved test security. Computerized adaptive tests (CATs) are also particularly useful for evaluating student growth over time. Issues and concerns with CATs are also discussed. This discussion shows the critical need for cross-disciplinary research to ensure that the use of Web-based testing will truly benefit students. (Contains 38 references.) (SLD)

In 1998, Congress directed the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) to conduct an analysis of issues related to the ways universities recover the facilities and administrative costs (also known as indirect costs) they incur when performing research under federal grants and contracts. At OSTP's request, the RAND Science and Technology Policy Institute prepared this report to present information on facilities and administrative costs in U.S. higher education. The report, which may be of interest to scientists, higher education administrators, and federal, state, and local governments, addresses the issues raised by Congress. It presents factual information and analysis of alternatives rather than taking positions on policy options. (Contains 51 references.) (EV)

Data from the Schools and Staffing Survey, and from New York and Texas, were analyzed in 1999 to identify prevailing trends in the vocational education (VE) teacher labor market. The data, all secondary sources, were analyzed by using a set of indicators for detecting shortage or surplus conditions, and a set of guidelines for developing behavioral models to explain labor supply choices on the part of individuals, and labor demand choices on the part of educational agencies. Among the main findings of the analysis were the following: (1) both the absolute size of the VE teaching force, and its size relative to the total teaching force, appear to have declined since the early 1980s; (2) although VE teachers tended to be evenly split between men and women, a great deal of occupational segregation existed across subfields; (3) compared with nonvocational teachers, VE teachers tended to be significantly older and have lower levels of educational attainment; and (5) existing data fail to capture the information needed to determine whether shortages exist in teacher labor markets. (Contains 169 references and 71 tables/figures. Appended are a description of the primary data sources and 32 supplementary tables/graphs from the National New York and Texas Teacher Databases.) (MN)

This report examines demand and supply of minority teachers in Texas. Researchers investigated what defined at-risk districts; how those districts differed from those not at risk; and what was known about the likely future demand and supply of minority teachers. Information came from a longitudinal data file on public school teachers in Texas from 1979-1996 obtained from the Texas Education Agency. Results indicate that three-quarters of all Texas full-time teachers are non-Hispanic White, whereas the student body is over half minority. Texas has done well in attracting minorities to teaching using many sources. Recently, minorities have accounted for 26 percent of new teacher cohorts. Alternative teacher certification programs are a rich source of minority teachers. Future supply looks less promising, with decreasing numbers of teachers in the pipeline and the mandated teacher entry and certification tests proving a bigger hurdle for minority than white candidates. Results suggest that minority teachers display a greater sensitivity to pay and working conditions. This report's five chapters are: (1) "Introduction"; (2) "Students and Teachers in At-Risk Settings"; (3) "Components of Teacher Supply"; (4) "Components of Teacher Demand"; and (5) "Conclusions and Policy Implications." The two appendixes present resources and working conditions in low-, medium-, and high-risk districts and results of multivariate models based on teacher characteristics, 1980-81 to 1995-96. (Contains approximately 90 references.) (SM)

As mandated by the U.S. Congress, this report evaluates the Learn and Serve America program's effects on higher education students (service providers), service recipients, and higher education institutions, and assesses the program's return on investment. An introduction summarizes the policy debate and reviews the study objectives and approach. Other sections: (1) review program accomplishments in direct service and capacity building; (2) assess the program's effects on student development; (3) assess the program's effects on communities; (4) assess the program's effects on colleges and universities as measured by four objectives (expanding student service opportunities, integrating service into course work, fostering mutually beneficial relationships with community organizations, and promoting sustainable programs); and (5) estimate the program's return on investment. The report finds that community organizations are strongly positive about the program; that institutional support is growing and an increasing number of service-learning courses are being offered; and that students are satisfied with their service learning courses. In measuring the program's return on investment, it was found that the value of services delivered increased sharply over three years relative to resources expended; in the third year, the return on investment was positive. (CH)

This study explores methods for detecting gender-based differential item functioning (DIF) on the 12th grade multiple-choice and constructed-response science tests administered as part of the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88). Several combinations of conditioning variables were explored for DIF detection on both tests, and results were supplemented with evidence from interviews of 25 students who completed the test items. On both tests, DIF in favor of males was exhibited primarily on items that involved visualization and that called upon knowledge and experiences acquired outside of school. The findings reveal that neither content nor format alone explained the patterns of male and female performance, and that an investigation of response processes may provide valuable additional information about the nature of gender differences in science achievement. (Contains 7 tables, 4 figures, and 56 references.) (Author/SLD)

In July 1996, California began its Class Size Reduction (CSR) Initiative. To gauge the effectiveness of this initiative, an analysis of its objectives and an overview of proposed strategies for evaluating CSR are presented here. An outline of the major challenges that stand between CSR and its mission are provided. These include logistical challenges, financial challenges, the impact on teaching and learning, unanswered questions in the literature, and the value of a systematic evaluation of the program. The text outlines the design and key research questions that must be addressed by any evaluation plan and recommends six principles that call for a single, integrated evaluation; a comprehensive review; and a summative evaluation. A conceptual model of the evaluation plan is also provided. Overviews of how CSR will affect the following areas are included: state, district, and school policymaking; resource allocation; integration with other reforms; teacher quality, assignment, and training; classroom practices; parental involvement; and student outcomes. It is claimed that students' engagement with schooling, as measured by attendance, promotion/retention, homework completion, and frequency of disciplinary actions, may also change with the introduction of reduced class size and therefore should be assessed as part of the evaluation of student outcomes. A methodology section discusses evaluating the implementation of the class size reduction initiative with discussion on overall design, data collection, sampling, data analyses, an advisory board, and deliverables. Contains 29 references. An appendix discusses the importance of evaluating class size reduction to California educational policy. (RJM)

During the 1990s, policymakers have become increasingly attentive to the relationship between education and national economic health and society's need to upgrade and equalize workforce skills, talent, and wages. The U.S. education and training system is fragmented, decentralized, and in flux, as more responsibility moves from federal to state governments and the private sector. To explore how education might meet new economic challenges, the National Center for Research in Vocational Education joined with RAND to sponsor a policy exercise based on Department of Defense "war games." The June 1997 Policy Planning Exercise on Education and the New Economy assembled vocational-education researchers, federal and state vocational-education officials, leaders of interested nonprofit organizations, and business community representatives. Exercises required panelists to allocate funds for a January 1998 training program in a hypothetical "state," redesign a 2002 update of this education and training system, and apply what they had learned to federal policy in the near term. This paper synthesizes panelists observations about the nation's first-chance and second-chance education systems; standards, certifications, and institutional accountability; lifelong learning; teacher training and development; an integrated academic and vocational training system; and the federal government's role. (MLH)

This paper describes a policy exercise on education and the new economy held in Aspen, Colorado, in June 1997. The exercise was designed to help the National Center for Research on Vocational Education understand the development of education and training in the near future. The exercise took advantage of expertise in social gaming developed at RAND, one of the Center's host sites. Participants included about two dozen education researchers and decision makers from across the United States. The paper describes the motivation for the policy exercise, its basis in earlier exercises, its structure and outcomes, and lessons for educational policy and further gaming. The discussion on system design focused on the improvement of standards, better coordination between the academic and vocational education systems and between human-resource-development systems and the private sector, and the use of performance-based criteria for teacher development. The federal government is recommended to encourage the establishment of standards, generate support for standards, and identify ways to coordinate work-force development. Appendices contain exercise materials and information about the allocation-outcomes model. (LMI)

Strengthening the linkages between educational institutions and the labor market is an important component of improving U.S. education and training system. In an effort to gather data on faculty linkages to their institutions, local labor markets, and communities, surveys were mailed to 3,500 academic and vocational faculty at community colleges across the United States requesting information on their characteristics and involvement with business and community organizations. Study findings, based on responses from 1,725 faculty, included the following: (1) vocational faculty were more connected to the labor market, largely because their programs depended upon enrollments and placements for survival; (2) part-time faculty had generally weak connections to their institutions, as well as lower levels of connectivity to the labor market; (3) faculty had very little available time to undertake intensive linking activities; (4) a lack of institutional resources limited professional development and workplace placement opportunities for faculty; (5) institutions did not formally reward linking behaviors and faculty received little support from their colleges, with the exception of vocational faculty in career assistance activities; (6) faculty in multi-campus districts generally showed lower levels of connectivity; (7) strong boundaries existed between academic and vocational departments and between credit and non-credit programs in most colleges, limiting collaboration and information sharing; and (8) local conditions greatly affected the opportunities for faculty to build linkages. Contains 18 references. Data tables are attached. (TGI)

Signed in April 1996, Executive Order (E.O.) 12999, "Educational Technology: Ensuring Opportunity for All Children in the Next Century," was intended to promote the transfer of unneeded federal government computer equipment to schools and educational nonprofit organizations. This report examines the supply and distribution of surplus government computers and the implications for schools. The report also looks at government agencies' early experiences with E.O. 12999 and identifies lessons from past government donation programs and private-sector efforts. The Critical Technologies Institute (CTI) of the RAND Corporation gathered information on the number of computers that might be distributed from the 13 largest federal agencies, examined their implementation plans, and conducted over 80 interviews with key agency personnel, private and nonprofit organizations, and schools. An estimated 30,000-50,000 computers were donated in one year, either directly or through the Federal Surplus Property Donation program. Lessons from private and public-sector computer donation programs include: transferring equipment in good working order is essential; donation programs must be managed; refurbishing and upgrading provide more and better equipment for schools; and recycling organizations offer advantages, but other approaches to refurbishing also seem feasible. Agency concerns with the intent and language of the Executive Order itself are discussed, and findings and recommendations are provided. Appendices include the text of E.O. 12999 and brief descriptions of selected recycling and intermediary organizations. (SWC)

Poor educational attainment is a persistent problem among Latino children relative to non-Latinos. This study examined the effects of participation in the Head Start program on Latinos. Large and significant benefits were found to accrue to Head Start children when compared to siblings who did not participate in the program. On average, Head Start participation closes at least one-fourth of the gap in test scores between Latino children and non-Hispanic white children, and two-thirds of the gap in the probability of grade repetition. Latinos are not a homogeneous group, and it was found that the benefits of Head Start are not evenly distributed across sub-groups. Relative to siblings who attend no preschool, the gains from Head Start are greatest among children of Mexican origin and children of native-born mothers, especially those whose mothers have more human capital. In contrast, Latino children whose mothers are foreign-born and Puerto Rican children appear to reap little benefit from attending Head Start, relative to their siblings who do not attend. (Five tables contain data on: (1) family background characteristics and child outcome measures; (2) impact on test scores and grade repetition; (3) effects on child outcomes; (4) effects on test scores; and (5) probability of attending Head Start versus other preschools. Contains 60 references.) (Author/SD)

Pennsylvania's proposed Charter Schools Act, House Bill (H.B.) 1834, allows charter schools to be approved by local school boards or school district voters. This report describes the mission, functions, capabilities, and plans of a potential nonprofit Technical Assistance Activity (TAA) for charter-school applicants under H.B. 1834. The report addresses the extent to which government and the private sector are likely to meet the needs of charter applicants, suggests areas where support provided by a nonprofit TAA may be of special importance to charter applicants, describes the capabilities that a TAA should possess, and provides a framework for planning the development of the new institution. The report concludes that the primary mission of a nonprofit TAA should be to support implementation of H.B. 1834 by providing information, access to professional expertise, and direct assistance to charter applicants. The specific functions of a Pennsylvania TAA are described. The report identifies basic support requirements, describes the particular needs of applicants for specialized expertise; and assesses the availability of appropriate support from government, and the cost and quality of support services from the private sector, and specifies services to be provided by the TAA. Nine tables are included. (LMI)

This report describes alternative assessments in vocational education, reviews examples from extended case studies, and discusses criteria to use to choose among assessment alternatives. Chapter 1 is an introduction that contains brief summaries of each of the six assessment alternatives to familiarize the reader with the range of the sample and the variety of approaches that were represented. Chapter 2 examines the primary purposes served by assessments in education and the specific conditions that are creating pressure for alternative methods of assessment among vocational educators: the changing student population and the rapidly evolving skill mix that must be reflected in vocational programs. Chapter 3 describes the range of assessment methods, from common multiple-choice tests to new constructed-response alternatives, including performance tasks, senior projects, and portfolios. Chapter 4 discusses the quality and feasibility of alternative assessments. Chapter 5 identifies other factors relevant to choosing appropriate assessment strategies and the advantages associated with particular choices. Chapter 6 presents examples of the kinds of assessment decisions confronting vocational educators and shows how the results of this study can contribute to these decisions. Six appendixes describe each of the following case studies in detail: Kentucky Instructional Results Information System; Laborers-American General Contractors Environmental Training Assessment; Oklahoma's State Competency-Based Testing System; National Board for Professional Teaching Standards; Vocational Industrial Clubs of America National Conference--Job Skills Contests and Leadership; and Career-Technical Assessment Program. Contains 30 references. (YLB)

A discussion among school and business leaders in Seattle (Washington) revealed that no one had a clear picture of the total community effort in support of schools or the external resources schools actually needed. The Program on Reinventing Public Education of the University of Washington conducted a study to determine how external resources were being distributed in the Seattle schools and whether these resources were meeting the needs of schools. School principals were surveyed in 1995 about the 1994-95 school year. The survey asked about funds from Seattle's Families and Education Levy, but did not ask about funds raised from sources within the school, such as a Parent Teacher Association. Survey results showed the immense scale and variety of external resources provided to Seattle schools. The Families and Education Levy alone provided over five million dollars in the school year, and was hailed by principals as indispensable to their schools. Local businesses offered multiple resources. In fact, public sector programs, grants, and contributions made up 49% of the dollar value of services available to Seattle public schools, and another 10% of the total dollar value of resources came from one private grant to a single high school. The remaining 41% came from local private sources in the form of 321 separate programs and services. Many of these were transient; almost half identified in a 1991 study of private contributions had disappeared by the 1995 survey. Researchers found that the overall distribution of these resources appeared to be random and unrelated to goals and strategies for school improvement and student achievement. (Contains three figures.) (SLD)

Recruiting schools and kids to participate in drug prevention evaluations is no longer, if it ever was, a "done deal." Since the mid-1980s, schools have been inundated with requirements for drug programs and requests to cooperate with program evaluations. As a consequence, both treatment and control schools are harder to find. In addition, many school administrators feel that their students have been "overstudied" and parents often look askance at questionnaires that seek information on sensitive topics such as drug use. Even if evaluators successfully pass the "recruitment barrier," additional problems such as the loss of schools or study participants over time may threaten the study's integrity. This paper examines the challenges facing evaluators of community-based programs when the design calls for assessing prevention efforts targeted at children or adolescents in school. It discusses the barriers to recruiting schools for the evaluation and keeping them in the study over time, and presents alternative strategies for overcoming these barriers. It then turns to the problems of getting and keeping student participants, focusing, in particular, on strategies for obtaining parental consent and minimizing attrition over time. (Contains 2 tables and 24 references.) (Author)

This report examines what happened after the National Intercollegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in 1986 raised its initial eligibility standards for freshmen (Proposition 48). Opponents believed that raising standards would unfairly restrict minority access to college, and consequently reduce the number of minority students who earn a bachelor's degree. In fact, application of Proposition 48's higher standards coincided with more rather than fewer minority students graduating from college. Over time, their share of all athletic scholarships actually increased. African-Americans who did not qualify for an athletic scholarship under Proposition 48 were frequently replaced by other African-Americans who may have been slightly less skilled athletically but were more able academically. Findings suggested that minority students would continue to succeed under NCAA standards due to take effect in 1996. These rules may result in talented athletes receiving fewer scholarships, but other students with a greater chance of graduating will take their place. (MAH)

In 1994, as part of an ongoing study of the quality and effects of large-scale educational assessments, RAND began a series of studies of Kentucky's assessment, the Kentucky Instructional Results Information System (KIRIS). KIRIS is a cornerstone of Kentucky's education reform program. It exemplifies several key themes of current assessment-based reform in that it relies largely on performance assessment, measures student achievement against standards for expected performance, and is a high-stakes assessment with consequences for educators and schools. This report presents the results of part of the RAND effort, its surveys of random representative samples of fourth-gradee teachers, eighth-grade mathematics teachers, and fourth- and eighth-grade principals across Kentucky. These educators responded about their views of the program, the changes they had made in instruction, assessment, and school management in response to the program, the methods they used to prepare students for KIRIS, and their implementation of classroom-based portfolio assessment. Interviews were completed with 115 principals and 216 teachers, and mail surveys were collected from 209 teachers. Results show that teachers and principals are generally rather positive about the program, although many have reservations, and most agree that the program has caused stress. Teachers were about evenly divided over a fundamental tenet of the program: that all students can learn to a high level. Educators voiced positive and negative views of the KIRIS, but they acknowledged its impact. (Contains 20 tables and 20 references.) (SLD)

In recent years, policymakers have shown renewed interest in the development of educational indicators hoping that specific quantitative indices will help them monitor the status of the educational system, understand its failures and successes, and build more effective remedies for perceived problems. This document is the final report of a study of the feasibility of developing a patchwork indicator system for science and mathematics education based on existing data sources covering achievement, secondary curriculum, and teacher workforce. This report summarizes the results of the patchwork exercise and offers recommendations for improving mathematics and science indicators. Contains 70 references. (MKR)

This report examines whether the economic well-being of male immigrants to the United States improves substantially over time, details differences in economic progress of immigrants from different countries of origin, and assesses the impact of educational attainment on immigrants' earnings. Analyses are based on Public Use Micro Samples of the 1970, 1980, and 1990 censuses. Since one in four California workers is an immigrant, findings for California are emphasized and compared to those for the nation. Immigrants to California are a heterogeneous group. Most are poorly educated and have low English proficiency, but substantial proportions are highly skilled or were educated in the United States. The largest immigrant group (37 percent) was born in Mexico; followed by 12 percent in Japan, Korea, or China; 9 percent in the Philippines; and 8 percent in Central America. Earnings of immigrant workers relative to native-born workers have declined substantially over the past 20 years, and immigrants have begun to dominate the lowest-skill jobs. Immigrants' economic progress over time varies considerably by country of origin. Japanese, Korean, and Chinese workers enter the U.S. labor market with wages much lower than native-born workers but reach parity in 10-15 years. Europeans enter with wages similar to natives and continue at parity. Mexicans enter with very low wages and experience a persistent wage gap. Although education is a powerful predictor of earnings, substantial differences in earnings profiles persist after adjusting for education. Finally, the rate of wage growth relative to native-born workers has not changed over time for any immigrant group. Contains 40 references and many data tables and figures. (SV)

The New American Schools Development Corporation (NASDC) supports seven design teams that develop and implement comprehensive designs for high-performance schools. By 1995 plans had been developed for over 200 participating schools. This paper presents findings of a study that explored the elements of school-accountability systems that aid or impede innovative practices. Data were derived from interviews that were conducted with 20 NASDC principals during summer 1995. Findings show that the leaders took accountability very seriously. They reported that standardized testing worked against their efforts and that they preferred using authentic accountability measures. The sample urged NASDC to lobby at the state and district level and to negotiate for waivers from accountability requirements. The principals felt that performance-based accountability tests more closely aligned their reform goals with their states' assessment systems. Principals also expressed having problems with requirements for credit hours, grade-to-grade promotion rates, teacher-student "contact hours," and teacher attendance rates. (LMI)

Using data from the same source as that employed in Herrnstein and Murray's book, "The Bell Curve," this study reexamined links between the test scores of mothers and children, paying close attention to what the scores measure and whether these measurements mean the same things for blacks and whites. The study replicated Herrnstein and Murray's finding that a mother's score on the Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT) is a powerful predictor of her child's score on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT). After controlling for AFQT, however, results showed racial gaps in PPVT scores. This suggests that AFQT is not the only factor influencing PPVT scores. Child's test scores differed dramatically in correlation with maternal education and income. In addition, scores differed with the test, the child's age, and the child's race. The child's background also significantly affected grade repetition after controlling for child test scores and maternal AFQT scores. Maternal scores of different achievement tests have different effects on the PPVT scores of black and white children. The conclusion is that nature and nurture both matter. (Includes 9 statistical tables and 23 references.) (JW)

This paper maintains that increasing Hispanic-American participation in higher education is a desirable public investment. It points out that the educational attainment of Hispanic-Americans has not kept pace with their increasing share of the population and the labor force, and that high school and college completion rates are lower than for other groups. This lower level of attainment translates into lower lifetime earnings and decreased tax revenues for federal and state governments. Increasing the college participation level of the cohort of Hispanic-Americans from birth through age 18 to that of White Americans would increase federal tax revenues an estimated $10 billion per year. Increasing the high school and college completion rates of the same cohort to that of White Americans would increase federal tax revenues an estimated $19 billion per year. (MDM)

This report summarizes results from research aimed at improving the quality of information collected about school curriculum. The research sought to design and pilot a model for collecting benchmark data on school coursework. These more indepth data, such as course textbooks, assignments, exams, and teacher logs, can serve as anchors against which the validity of the survey items used in national data collections might be assessed. The data provide a basis for assessing the extent to which survey items measure what is taught in schools and classrooms. They can also be used to monitor whether the validity of teachers' responses have been undermined by outside factors. Data were derived from a survey of 70 mathematics teachers in 9 secondary schools located in California and Washington. The survey was administered before and after the collection of artifact data. Data were also collected from teacher daily logs, assignments, and interviews with principals, counselors, and mathematics department chairs. Chapter 2 details the study design, and the next three chapters summarize the extent to which major dimensions of curriculum can be measured through national surveys and then validated through deeper probes in a smaller number of sites. The final chapter discusses the implications for the design of future curriculum-indicator systems and for the policy uses of such information. It concludes that while an enhanced version of current national surveys can provide a reasonably accurate picture of high school mathematics teaching across the country, there are significant limitations on such data, and at this point, policy uses for more than informational purposes would be inappropriate. The study represents a first step in ensuring that curriculum indicators are valid and reliable measures of instruction. Nine figures, 12 tables, copies of the surveys, and a sample daily log form are included. (Contains 39 references.) (LMI)

Data from the 1990 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS) are analyzed for eighth graders to distinguish the characteristics of low-achieving groups and the independent predictors of low test scores. Results provide a basis for evaluating the adequacy of the NAEP for these purposes. Analyses compared the bottom decile and quartile on the test-score distribution to the eighth-grade population as a whole in terms of simple univariate statistics. Logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the independent relationships between an individual's low achievement levels and social context characteristics in the NELS. Finally, several ordinary regressions and bivariate correlations among the social context measures were themselves analyzed to assess the adequacy of proxies in the NAEP. Findings demonstrate that several of the characteristics presently in the NAEP are useful for differentiating low achievers as a group from the eighth grade population as a whole. Analyses of the NELS show, however, that the NAEP currently lacks several measures important for the purpose. These include low family income, low levels of family closure, large families, single parent households, mothers who were young when they gave birth, greater school mobility, grade retention, lower grade point averages, low school mean income, and low levels of closure in the school as a whole. (Contains 12 tables, 17 figures, and 185 references.) (SLD)

Traditional methods of job and task analysis may be categorized as worker-oriented methods focusing on general human behaviors performed by workers in jobs or as job-oriented methods focusing on the technologies involved in jobs. The ability of both types of traditional methods to identify, understand, and communicate the skills needed in high performance workplaces is being questioned with increasing frequency. Cognitive task analysis methods, which were developed in response to the perceived weaknesses of traditional job task analysis methods, focus on understanding and describing the cognitive components associated with task performance. Worker-oriented, job-oriented, and cognitive task analyses all have their own inherent strengths and weaknesses. Worker-oriented and job-oriented methods have yet to develop vocabularies relevant to workers' cognitive activities but have a long history of successful use. Cognitive task analysis, on the other hand, appears promising in its capacity to understand workers' cognitive activities but has yet to prove itself. Rather than deciding between the traditional and cognitive approaches, researchers should develop job/task analysis methods capitalizing on the strengths of both approaches. (Contains 39 references.) (MN)

The 1990 Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act established an accountability system for vocational education based on "outcomes" such as academic skill gains, job placement, and program completion. Current congressional proposals for workforce training differ in the emphasis they place on individuals, communities, and states in the accountability process, and some proposals could result in abandonment of the Perkins Act's outcome-based model for program accountability and improvement before its effectiveness has been fully evaluated. The current group of federal legislative proposals for workforce training do not give sufficient attention to which outcomes should be monitored, and most proposals are vague about the use of outcome data. Research examining the broad issue of accountability and the effects of Perkins Act provisions on workoforce training in particular has suggested the following conclusions that are germane to the congressional debate over accountability: (1) workforce training programs should be accountable to multiple constituents (students, the local business community, and the state); (2) the choice of outcomes monitored affects the way an educational system operates and can distort system performance; and (3) producing performance data does not guarantee that such data will be used effectively. (MN)

Since 1992, the New American Schools Development Corporation (NASDC) has supported nine teams that developed designs for high-performance schools. This workbook is a guide developed for NASDC and for school-based reformers. It presents a framework for student and program evaluation called progress assessment. Chapters 2 through 5 provide suggestions, examples, and worksheets for evaluating school-reform programs. The progress-assessment framework is comprised of three steps: (1) specify program goals; (2) designate indicators of school change and program impact; and (3) define methods for data collection and analysis. Chapter 6 offers a template for developing school-reform portfolios, which promote accountability and continuous school improvement. The template has five sections: a statement of the school's vision and reform objectives; a description of the student population, school, and community; descriptions of initial implementation levels, early outcomes, and subsequent performance indicators; a summary of reform progress and challenges; and appendices that display supporting data. Three figures and three tables are included. The appendix contains the George Washington New American School portfolio for 1993-94. Contains 18 references. (LMI)

For the past five years, Vermont has been developing an innovative statewide assessment system in which portfolios of student work in mathematics and writing are a key element. The use of mathematics portfolios, particularly in elementary school, is a novel aspect of the assessment system. This study examines the elementary school mathematics portfolio assessment and its instructional impact by exploring the conceptions of problem solving, the knowledge of problem-solving strategies, the evaluation of problem-solving tasks, and the instructional practices of 20 fourth-grade teachers. Teachers indicated that the portfolio assessment program has enhanced their understanding of mathematical problem solving and broadened their instructional practices, but that they have encountered difficulty in understanding certain components of the reform and making the relevant changes. Teachers did not share a common understanding of mathematical problem solving or agree on skills that students should master. Eight figures and three tables present study findings. (Contains 13 references.) (SLD)

This report summarizes the first of four workshops organized to take advantage of the experience and insights of those already implementing new technologies in the schools. The workshop examined professional development needs and consisted of a one and one-half day conversation with educators and experts working to apply communications technology to the school system. Participants discussed the need to re-examine the basics of professional development, to deal with the anxieties and organizational issues that hinder technology use, and to generate realistic expectations about what technology can accomplish. Limitations and practical difficulties identified included: technology is not that advanced; school systems have already invested in technologies that are diverse and complex; there are significant costs associated with connecting schools to the information highway; and limited attention has been paid to the quality of the materials available. Participants identified several ways the federal government could respond: (1) taking a leadership role in generating public support; (2) sponsoring research concerning both professional development and technology as a teaching tool; (3) supporting demonstrations and models for using technology for professional development; (4) taking a more active role in promoting the use of technology in professional development, including development of training materials and resources; and (5) advancing standards for communications infrastructure. Time was cited as the most common barrier to professional development. The sense conveyed during the workshop was that the professional development community is still redefining its own role and only beginning to understand how technology can be used as a tool to support ways people teach and learn. An appendix lists the workshop participants. (ND)

This report presents results and recommendations from an assessment of the Campus Compact Center for Community Colleges (5C or the Center), Arizona, designed to support and guide planning for the future of the center. The study was supported by the Campus Compact and the Maricopa Community College District/Mesa College, Arizona. The project addressed three goals: (1) describe and assess the organizational relations among the center, the national and state compacts, and the Maricopa Community College District (MCCD); (2) assess the fit between the needs and interests of the community college sector on the one hand, and the activities of the 5C and the compact on the other; and (3) make specific recommendations regarding future directions for the 5C. The study consisted of a two-day site visit to the center and a telephone survey of 25 community college service learning coordinators. The survey sample was drawn from four lists of institutions: (1) those who have received a site visit by 5C; (2) those who attended a specific 5C national conference; (3) those that are compact members; and (4) all U.S. community colleges. The findings here indicate that most of the respondents who had received a site visit found it to be effective, though the sample is too small to provide results that are generalizable to the total population of community colleges. (NB)