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Completion of work placements by undergraduate students is recognised as positively influencing graduate employment outcomes. However, it is less clear whether all students can access placements equitably. We analysed an extensive institutional data set, spanning six years, involving 26,506 undergraduate students to explore the extent to which particular student groups take up a Work Placement Year and how engagement (or not) impacts Graduate Prospects (employment outcomes). Specifically, we focused on student characteristics for which some evidence exists for differential outcomes in Higher Education (gender, ethnicity, age, disability and socioeconomic status). Our data shows that participation rates in a Work Placement Year are unequal amongst student groups, with statistically significant differences evident amongst males and females (uptake higher in females), young and mature (uptake higher in the young) and by disability status (uptake higher amongst the non-disabled). Whilst participation in a Work Placement Year associated with improved (statistically significant) Graduate Prospects for all cohorts, there continues to be a gap in Graduate Prospects between certain categories of students. This is most notably apparent between females and males, with a statistically significant difference in favour of men. Our work highlights the need to understand barriers experienced by specific student cohorts and consider how to provide targeted support in accessing work placement opportunities. Our work also suggests broader structural inequalities and a gender divide may impact on graduate prospects for certain student groups and these need to be examined so that effective strategies can be implemented to reduce inequities post-graduation.

Hospitalisation can be a challenging experience for young people, including higher levels of anxiety, social isolation, and depression. In this paper we identify the possibilities of an applied theatre pilot that aimed to combine co-designed virtual reality (VR) approaches with intermedial work with young people in hospital. Within the pilot study we worked with three participants in individualised bedside workshops over a four-week period. Analysis from the pilot demonstrated the significance of the co-design process leading to greater degrees of agency for young people, and opportunities for the participants to share experiences with medical staff, carers, and siblings.

In this paper, I examine memory as it relates to politics and early childhood education in the context of the internationally known preschools of Reggio Emilia in Italy. I draw a connection between foundational stories, ideologies connected to Italian politics in the 1970s, and the construction of the educational visions in these preschools. To do so, I examine school diaries from the 1970s that I encountered in the Reggio Emilia schools' official archives -- the Centre for Documentation and Educational Research. These diaries, which are mostly unpublished, have a great value: they show us how stories about the past and visions of the future can merge to constitute the social and political imaginary of a school community, with the power of shaping the decisions, actions, and beliefs of its members. Though much of the literature around the so-called Reggio Emilia Approach used in the Reggio Emilia schools talks about the "democratic" character of its educational practices, it often does not touch on the specific political character historically associated with such an approach. In this article, I begin to address this lacuna.

Objective: Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is the cause of infectious mononucleosis, which disproportionately affects university students. This population has the potential to benefit from a prophylactic EBV vaccine trial. Our objectives were to determine EBV infection status and associated demographic/lifestyle factors among first year undergraduate university students at the beginning and end of first year. Methods EBV infection status was assessed by testing for circulating IgG class antibodies against EBV viral capsid antigen. Results Of 198 starting students; 56.1% were positive for EBV antibodies with a higher rate in women (64.8%) than male (41.1%); p = 0.002. A history of deep kissing was associated with a higher rate of EBV antibody positivity. On follow-up 8 months later at the end of freshman year, 22.4% had acquired EBV antibodies for a primary infection incidence of 33.6/100 person years. Conclusion These findings indicate that our first year undergraduate population contains sufficient EBV-naïve subjects for a prophylactic vaccine trial.

We examined the effect of in-text American Psychological Association (APA)-style citations on quiz performance as a function of structure building ability, measured by the Multi-Media Comprehension Battery. Participants were randomly assigned to either APA or no citation conditions and asked to read an expository text followed by a comprehension quiz. Less skilled structure builders performed significantly lower on a comprehension quiz and read faster in the APA citation compared to the no citation condition. In contrast, skilled structure builders performed equally well on the comprehension quiz but had to reduce their reading speed in the APA citation condition. The results challenge the utility of in-text APA citations in textbooks targeted at general populations of students, particularly for moderate to poor comprehenders.

The community engagement project described in this article took the form of the re-invention and re-interpretation of a historic symbol (Diana the elephant) on the Potchefstroom Campus of North-West University (NWU), South Africa. In 2015, the Faculty of Education Sciences invited staff and students to reinterpret the elephant (a symbol of education, longevity, wisdom, care, stamina, memory) in a new and more multicultural, multilingual, inclusive and environmentally conscious South Africa. The participatory process described, and the related outcomes, involved learning by students and academics across disciplines (the conceptualisation, design, engineering and creation of the structure) and collaboration between academics, children and adults from the community, all with a strong service-learning dimension in relation to teacher education.

This study focused on the relationship between living arrangement (residential vs. commuter) and the academic performance (grade point average) of first-year, full time undergraduate students at one public, 4-year university in the Southeast. Additionally, we analyzed five educationally effective practices as described by the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE): level of academic challenge active and collaborative learning, student-faculty interaction, enriching educational experiences, and supportive campus environment, to identify possible mediators to the relationship between living arrangement and academic performance. We found commuter students earned higher grade point averages than residential students; however, students in both living environments benefited from participating in high levels of academic challenge. While the results of this study challenged the perception that commuters as a group achieve academically at lower levels than residential students, our findings supported prior literature. Our results suggest the amount of time and energy students invest in the college experience relates to students' academic success, regardless of living arrangement.

South Africa's history of segregation and the privileging of English and Afrikaans as the only languages of teaching and learning beyond primary schooling, make the post-apartheid period a complex one, especially in light of the Constitutional commitment to multilingualism in the 11 official languages. Research on literacy and language teaching contextualises the impact of curriculum and language policy initiatives aimed at improving learner performance. We review research concerning the transition from the study of first additional language (FAL) as subject, to the use of FAL as the language of learning and teaching (LoLT). Also considered are major studies on learner performance nationally and South Africa's comparability globally. The impact of home language (HL) literacy development on performance in English as the LoLT links to research on language development in teacher education programmes, and shows connections between the capacity of teachers to develop languages for literacy and LoLT and learner success. Research on the development of early childhood literacy in the HL demonstrates the positive impact on literacy development in the LoLT.

Two of the largest Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) organizations have chosen different methods for the way they will score and provide feedback on essays students submit. EdX, MIT and Harvard's non-profit MOOC federation, recently announced that they will use a machine-based Automated Essay Scoring (AES) application to assess written work in their MOOCs. Coursera, a Stanford startup for MOOCs, has been skeptical of AES applications and therefore has held that it will use some form of human-based "calibrated peer review" to score and provide feedback on student writing. This essay reviews the relevant literature on AES and UCLA's Calibrated Peer Review™ (CPR) product at a high level, outlines the capabilities and limitations of both AES and CPR, and provides a table and framework for comparing these forms of assessment of student writing in MOOCs.

This paper reports on a mixed methods project entitled "Playful Engagement" aimed at improving the quality of life (QoL) of individuals living with dementia through engagement with two relational clowns. Analysis of the quantitative data was unable to identify QoL improvements, whilst the qualitative data revealed positive affective outcomes within individual visits. In light of these outcomes, literature focused on the perceptions of QoL by individuals living with dementia was employed to generate an alternate reading. This alternate reading suggests that while the visits may not have improved the participants' overall quality of life, they nevertheless generated 'quality moments of life' characterised by connectedness, relationships, agency and happiness.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to explore the work-based learning (WBL) ethos of a professional studies doctoral program, a higher degree by research program implemented in Australia. Design/methodology/approach: This is a preliminary case study of one higher degree by research program and two doctoral candidates participating in the program to explore the ethos and outcomes of the program. Findings: The program has sought to develop a different type of higher education ethos, one characterized by an open-door communications policy, a critical friend philosophy, an emphasis on teamwork, pro tem supervision and a new model for doctoral supervision, self-designed work-based projects, self-directed research programs and the development of professional identity. Originality/value: The characteristics and contributions of WBL programs at the doctoral level have been well documented in the academic literature, but the unique ethos, if there is one, of such programs has yet to be fully examined. This study goes some of the way to answering the question of whether such programs have a unique ethos and if so what are its features and how might it contribute to student development.

This essay inquires into the knowledge domains of teachers who teach English literature to first additional language learners in the Further Education and Training phase, namely Grades 10-12, in South Africa. We explore teachers' perceptions about content and pedagogy, their knowledge of their students, as well as their knowledge and beliefs about the place of literature teaching within the curriculum. Drawing on interviews, observations and document analysis, we endeavour to provide a glimpse into these knowledge domains, which often remain tacit. A conflict between the teachers' preferred reader-oriented approaches to teaching, with emphasis on collaborative knowledge construction and meaning making between teachers and their students, and more formal, text-oriented approaches, is evident. The focus on text-oriented approaches seems to be a result of required forms of assessment, as well as teachers' sense of responsibility towards their learners' achieving success in examinations.

In this article, memory is examined as it relates to origin stories of the Reggio Emilia approach -- an internationally renowned Italian education programme -- and to the articulation of women's experiences of gender and their narrative identity in this very particular context. The article shows that a number of women who partook in the founding of the Reggio Emilia schools suffer from what Ricoeur terms 'wounded memory', which occurs when public recognition and legitimisation of one's own narrative is actively marginalised, suppressed or erased in historical, official and institutional accounts. The author describes this experience and feeling shared by the Reggio Emilia women who were interviewed and argues that this 'wounded memory' can be linked to a wider concern with gender inequality. The article concludes by presenting some of the missing accounts of leadership, creativity and initiative that were gathered among these women whose memory has been wounded.

This special issue of "Perspectives in Education" arises from a symposium entitled "Academic depth and rigour in initial teacher education" jointly organised by four universities in South Africa. The symposium, held in October 2014, attracted 125 delegates from 18 South African higher education institutions (HEIs). Representatives from the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), the Department of Basic Education and a delegation from the European Union also attended. The forty-eight papers presented over two days enabled teacher educators to engage in robust conversations about the academic depth and rigour of courses offered to pre-service teachers. Presentations ranged from considerations of the overall conceptual coherence of initial teacher education (ITE) curricula and benchmarking quality to contributions that grappled with academic depth and rigour in specific subjects and courses offered in ITE programmes. This issue of "Perspectives in Education" provides a space for teacher educators who have been working to strengthen academic depth and rigour associated with ITE programmes to share their research, conceptualisation of courses, pedagogical innovations and assessment strategies with the sector more broadly. A contribution of this special issue to the national conversation about ITE is to show how a wide range of teacher educators, from different institutions and working in different subject areas, are working with academic depth and rigour to support the development of conceptually informed practice. This introduction to the issue first makes a case for why academic depth and rigour in university-based coursework is crucial for preparing prospective teachers for their work within the South African context and then introduces the papers.

This article investigates whether the memories of women's movements that grew out of the Italian Resistance to the Nazi-Fascist Regime during the Second World War have left any legacy to women teachers in early childhood education. The article focuses on the case of internationally renowned and high-quality schools for young children, the municipal schools of a northern Italian town called Reggio Emilia. In contrast to much of the literature on gender and early childhood education, this paper reveals that many women teachers in these schools think of themselves as agents of social change, and that this is tied to their memories of the Italian Resistance.

Although it has been shown that mentorship is predictive of more effective teaching and adherence to model teaching criteria for Early Career Psychologists (ECPs) (Troisi, Leder-Elder, Stiegler-Balfour, Fleck, Good, in press), little research has examined the differential utility of various types of mentors among university faculty members. We conducted a national survey comparing three types of mentors (i.e., intra-departmental, intra-university, other self-selected mentor) among 122 ECPs. Overall, mentors from one's department and other self-selected mentors were more effective than mentors from another department at one's university. Implications for mentoring early career faculty in higher education are discussed.

To date, research has not examined the influence of mentorship on the teaching effectiveness of Early Career Psychologists (ECPs). We sought to fill this void by conducting a national survey of 122 ECPs assessing the presence or absence of three types of ECP mentors (i.e., in their department, in another department at their university, or another self-selected mentor) as well as the successes and challenges associated with working with those mentors. Overall, ECPs viewed relationships with mentors quite favorably, and mentorship was positively related to more effective teaching activities and adherence to model teaching criteria. Implications for future research on the study of mentorship among ECPs and how junior and senior faculty can benefit from these findings are discussed.

This article presents analysed data from the first year of the Rural Teacher Education Project (RTEP 2007-2009) with a view to illustrating how a generative theory of rurality as education research was developed, and for which ends it might be utilised. The article suggests that data from projects in rural communities, which take the rural as context, need to interrogate the role and purpose of education in such contexts in relation to notions of social and professional identity. I argue for the application of a social theory in which the rural is linked to the possibilities of identity and interaction in terms of the quality of teacher education and the quality of education in rural communities. The theory accounts for the ability of people (in this case teachers) to sustain themselves in space and time--both as subjects and agents able to resist or transform the environment, depending on resources available. It also illuminates the reality, or otherwise, of subjectivities and perceptions in our collective imaginary concerning education and the transformation project in South Africa. (Contains 10 figures and 1 endnote.)

Supervision might be understood as the provision usually by an academic to a student of either the expert guidance in subject knowledge or genre knowledge in relation to postgraduate thesis development. The Project for Postgraduate Educational Research (PPER) team members, in the course of their field visits, sought to interview supervisors of postgraduate education research in the different institutions' faculties and schools of education where there was a substantive history of successful supervision. Evidence of sustained supervision was determined by the number of theses found in particular disciplines supervised by the same supervisor who is still employed at the institution at the time of the project visit. This article raises questions with regard to pedagogy and research and explores the complex nature of supervisory relationships which is central to the pedagogy of postgraduate education. Questions about the pedagogy of postgraduate education research leads the authors to explore how conventional attachments to supervisory relationships are challenged, changed or remain unaltered (Johnson et al. 2000, 137)--in the context of higher education, where, according to the CHE (2009), Ph.D. candidature has become more frequent. Our argument is that supervisory relationships in PhD pedagogy are negotiated and defined by the supervisors' particular ideas and interests about scholarship and knowledge generation, within situated, institutional realities. We find a variety of supervisory models and practices which arise from supervisors' ideological commitments, as well as personal experiences, and we conclude that there is exists a continuum--from a traditional model where there is deep, intense attachment to the one-to-one relationship on one end, a hybrid model where the supervision relationship is reconfigured and opened up for multiple relationships, on the other end. (Contains 1 figure.)

Historically, rurality and rural education have been marginalised bodies of knowledge in South Africa. The post-1994 era has seen an emerging government concern to address the continuing interplay between poverty, HIV/AIDS, underdevelopment, and underachievement in schools categorised as rural. To address these concerns, scholars in South African institutions of higher learning have conducted research on various issues on rurality and rural education. However, little is known of the focus of the various studies and the state of rural education and rural education research. Drawing on the Project for Postgraduate Education Research (PPER) from 1995-2004, the purpose of this article is to critically analyse the discourses underpinning rural education and rural education research in South Africa. The article focuses on three enabling assumptions. The first is that there is little research which takes as its primary focus rurality as lived experience worthy of scholarly reflection regarding how rurality influences social or specific education issues. Secondly, there is substantively more research in which rurality, or facets of rural life, is considered as context in which projects or studies are located. Such studies are conducted in a rural context without any intention of investigating rural issues or rural education issues, or explaining how rurality influences education in these rural contexts. Thirdly, there is a small body of research which takes as its focus social issues in relation to rural conditions. These studies focus on rurality not merely as the context of reflection, but as an active constituent of social conditions evident in rural life. Our analysis, focusing on postgraduate research in South African HEIs in terms of these assumptions, aims to continue a dialogue that leads to further understanding of the complexities of rural education and rural development. (Contains 10 figures.)

It is widely known that there is a dearth of education research in South Africa which takes as its methodological basis experimentation. The emphasis has been on educators' and learners' experiential understanding in the first decade of democracy after apartheid, when qualitative research predominated. The article investigates, first, the extent of experimental and quasi experimental research designs. Second, we examine, drawing upon a sample of theses which self-report as experimental and quasi-experimental research, the extent to which such methodologies are actually deployed and with what success or efficacy. And, third, we interrogate the associations of experimental and quasi-experimental designs with particular disciplines within education. This article points out the problems with random assignment of participants into experimental and control group in educational settings. Most of the experimental research is concentrated in three institutions in the Gauteng Province, while there are six institutions where this methodology is not used. Also, the experimental designs are prevalent in the psychology of education discipline. This points, ultimately, to the lack of supervision capacity in the experimental designs in South African higher education institutions. (Contains 2 notes, 7 tables, and 3 figures.)

The Project Postgraduate Educational Research (PPER) data indicate that case study is the most popular methodology among South African education masters and doctorate students in the period 1995-2004. This article reflects on the reasons for the preference for case study by considering epistemological and contextual factors. It unpacks the links between the methodological choice of case study, on the one hand, and the thematic focus and sectoral location of theses, on the other. While acknowledging the strengths of case study methodology regarding manageability, depth and experiential texture, the article argues that the predominance of case study limits the applicability of research to wider questions of policy and implementation, and thus contributes to the hiddenness of students' voices in public discourse around education. It suggests ways of enhancing the wider relevance of case studies through multiple case designs, sequential case studies, mixed method designs and synoptic reviews. (Contains 4 tables and 2 figures.)

Knowledge generation over the decade 1995-2004 in South Africa, and its relationship to the changing nature of socio-economic landscapes, suggests an ever closer relationship between the research produced in higher education, and its social and scientific purposes. These have been identified largely by the State through its regulatory frameworks, economic, and social agendas. In this article we examine the research generation of postgraduate students of education in South African higher education institutions in the first decade after apartheid. Using the Project for Postgraduate Education Research (PPER) as an example, we explore the role of large-scale research projects in South Africa, and how such work might respond to Government priorities, as well as issues identified by society and the academy in partnership with the State. (Contains 7 endnotes and 8 tables.)

Participants read a series of news articles, each containing a target event followed by 2 causes. To study the ease with which readers update their mental representation as they proceed through the text, the certainty of the first cause was manipulated: It was presented as either a certain explanation of the subsequent target event or as a suspected explanation. In a control condition, no first cause was presented. After a backgrounding section, a critical sentence introduced a second, definitive cause. In Experiment 1, reading times for the critical sentence were the slowest when the first cause was presented as certain. Reading times were also longer in the suspected condition than in the no-cause condition. Because recall protocols collected in Experiment 2 revealed the readers' tendency to encode the suspected cause one half of the time as certain, the hypothetical status of the first cause was stressed in the suspected condition in Experiment 3. Again, reading times increased when a second cause was introduced in both conditions (i.e., suspected and certain), and varied as a function of the certainty of the first cause. These results highlight that as long as a cause has been invoked earlier in the news articles, the updating process needs extra processing time to incorporate a new cause; this extra time is necessary independent of the certainty of the information that has to be replaced. (Contains 4 tables.)

What emerges repeatedly in research regarding language choice in South Africa is that people negotiate culture, face and identity through more than one language, and balance the need for modernity and the value of tradition, together with awareness that multiculturalism is normative in South Africa. South African scholarship focusing on bilingualism is also informed by the experiences of other countries in which multilingualism has become a feature of language planning. In South Africa, parents are not blind consumers of hegemonic languages, and learners are not insensitive to the dangers of language attrition or subtractive bilingualism. This paper argues, based on its focus on the gaps between policy intentions, research and practices, for closer collaboration between education sectors (the tertiary, and the primary and secondary) in South Africa to better support the development of multilingualism as envisaged by national and higher education language policy documentation.

The University of KwaZulu-Natal approved its bilingual language policy in 2006 based on the framework of the National Language Policy for Higher Education of 2002. The guiding principles of this policy suggest that the university develops the use of isiZulu as a language of instruction and communication, in line with recommendations of the Ministerial Committee report, which investigated the development of indigenous African languages as media of instruction in higher education. The implementation of the bilingual policy began in 2008, under the responsibility of the university's language board and faculties. Whilst debates on the policy itself are endless, there are foreseen challenges in its implementation. This is a case of "acquisition planning" as in effect acquisition of isiZulu as a second language will be expected from all the university staff and students. The purpose of this article is to discuss some of these challenges and to identify steps towards language policy implementation. (Contains 1 note.)

This paper explores the impact of a specially designed programme of communicative strategies on English second language (ESL) development in a scaffolded case study that set out to promote teacher-guided, constructive learner talk in the outcomes-based education arts and culture classroom. The programme was implemented in a multilingual secondary school in Durban, South Africa, and focused on four groups of Grade 8 (aged 12-13) learners in 2003 and the same four groups of learners in Grade 9 (aged 13-14) in 2004. The paper explores the design and implementation of this programme through a description of lesson strategies which were devised and implemented with the help of educators in the school. Also described in the article are the assessment strategies used to ascertain what learning and progress in learner talk was made over a two-year period. Drawing on qualitative and quantitative data from students and educators alike, the paper demonstrates that triangulation of the findings allows a richly textured narrative to emerge of learning and progress in an otherwise under-resourced and difficult setting. (Contains 8 tables, 9 figures and 2 notes.)

The paper provides a review of some of the terminologies and definitions of applied theatre, critiques the "transformative principle" argued for by some applied researchers, and extends this to a discussion on the complex relationship between donor agendas and the politics of intention that contribute to the shaping of applied discourse (Taylor 2003, 1). The paper goes on to propose a theatre of "little changes" which eschews big claims of social efficacy, and suggests the need for a discourse which can better articulate an interdependence between the aesthetic imperatives and the possibilities of social engagement.

This article is about the national project to gather together information about postgraduate education research (PPER) in South Africa conducted over a ten-year period, namely 1995-2004, being the first decade in the democratic era for South Africa. The ideas informing the PPER Project are provided and the complex process of developing the PPER database is discussed. Although it is too early to yield firm findings about the trends, the article offers a tentative first level of description about postgraduate education research. (Contains 6 figures and 5 notes.)

This paper examines legislation concerning language policy and language choice in the UK and South Africa. In particular an account of the pressures and imperatives to which such policy development must respond is provided. The paper suggests that the comparison between South Africa and the UK is relevant and compelling, not least because both countries respond to an awareness of multilingualism and internationalism in both the schooling and higher education systems, though in different ways and with different effects. The paper explores the degree to which language policies may facilitate, but may also obstruct, language development and choice in HEIs in the UK and South Africa.

Excellent medication adherence (greater than 95%) is required for optimal HIV treatment success. This study aimed to develop and validate a brief scale to assess psychological readiness for successfully starting and adhering to HIV medications. HIV-positive men and women (N = 142) from an HIV outpatient clinic completed the proposed HIV Medication Readiness Scale (HMRS) prior to starting HIV medications. The 10-item HMRS demonstrated high internal consistency (alpha = 0.90), test-retest reliability (r = 0.83), and sensitivity to change following a standardized 4-session psychoeducational intervention designed to increase readiness for successful adherence. Predictive validity was supported by higher readiness scores on the day starting HIV medications, predicting higher treatment adherence at 1-month follow-up. The HMRS is a brief, easy-to-use, clinically relevant tool that can assist in identifying people living with HIV at high risk of nonadherence, who might benefit from tailored readiness counseling prior to initiating HIV medications. (Contains 2 tables.) [This study was supported by funds from the AIDS Bureau of Ontario and Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR).]

Two Diels-Alder reactions are described that are suitable for a MORE (microwave-induced organic reaction enhanced) experiment in the organic chemistry laboratory course. A second experiment in which the splitting patterns of the vinyl protons in the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of two MORE adducts are used in conjunction with molecular modeling to identify the MORE diene precursors is also described.

Bernstein's work on educational transmission provides a discourse for understanding classroom practice which can integrate elements as diverse as content and interaction, to enable a critical evaluation of how pedagogic transformation occurs. This article describes an intervention in an English classroom in rural KwaZulu-Natal in which the shift occurs from a conventional pedagogy and conventional English curriculum to a transformed curriculum and practice. At the heart of this project is empowerment, both for the teacher and learner. The pedagogic transformation described here suggests new directions both for classroom observation methodologies, and for English language development.

Explores the interface between literature, gender, culture, and language within an educational context. Examines the responses of Zulu boys and girls to the introduction of a new curriculum that integrated language and literary study in a rural school in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Specifically, it shows how reading can lead to a more complex and critical notion of how gender portends differential access to power. (SM)

Explains that criminal justice agencies have acknowledged that imaginative and engaging styles of education are crucial to rehabilitative work with offenders. Investigates the ways in which a drama-based cognitive-behavioral program in the United Kingdom for violent offenders can construct and review its theoretical approach through practice. Concludes that the theatre in prisons and probation (TIPP) Centre's Pump Challenging Violence program serves as an example of a creative educational project. (PM)

Mirroring McGregor's management theories X and Y, the authors posit educational theory X, in which learners are treated as passive children whose teachers make all curricular decisions, and theory Y, in which students are viewed as autonomous and self-directed learners. (SK)